Dietary energy density and successful weight loss maintenance

Research shows a positive relationship between dietary energy density (ED) and body mass index (BMI), but dietary ED of weight loss maintainers is unknown. This preliminary investigation was a secondary data analysis that compared self-reported dietary ED and food group servings consumed in overweight adults (OW: BMI=27-45kg/m(2)), normal weight adults (NW: BMI=19-24.9 kg/m(2)), and weight loss maintainers (WLM: current BMI=19-24.9kg/m(2) [lost≥10% of maximum body weight and maintained loss for ≥5years]) participating in 2 studies, with data collected from July 2006 to March 2007. Three 24-h phone dietary recalls from 287 participants (OW=97, NW=85, WLM=105) assessed self-reported dietary intake. ED (kcal/g) was calculated by three methods (food+all beverages except water [F+AB], food+caloric beverages [F+CB], and food only [FO]). Differences in self-reported consumption of dietary ED, food group servings, energy, grams of food/beverages, fat, and fiber were assessed using one-way MANCOVA, adjusting for age, sex, and weekly energy expenditure from self-reported physical activity. ED, calculated by all three methods, was significantly lower in WLM than in NW or OW (FO: WLM=1.39±0.45kcal/g; NW=1.60±0.43 kcal/g; OW=1.83±0.42 kcal/g). Self-reported daily servings of vegetables and whole grains consumed were significantly higher in WLM compared to NW and OW (vegetables: WLM=4.9±3.1 servings/day; NW=3.9±2.0 servings/day; OW=3.4±1.7 servings/day; whole grains: WLM=2.2±1.8 servings/day; NW=1.4±1.2 servings/day; OW=1.3±1.3 servings/day). WLM self-reported consuming significantly less energy from fat and more fiber than the other two groups. Self-reported energy intake per day was significantly lower in WLM than OW, and WLM self-reported consuming significantly more grams of food/beverages per day than OW. These preliminary findings suggest that consuming a diet lower in ED, characterized by greater intake of vegetables and whole grains, may aid with weight loss maintenance and should be further tested in prospective randomized controlled trials.     

Factors Associated with Underweight,Overweight, and Eating Disorders in Young Korean Women: A Population-Based Study

Both underweight (UW) and overweight (OW) conditions are problematic in young women. The aim of this study was to examine the factors associated with extreme weight status and eating disorders (EDs) in young Korean women. A total of 808 women (mean age 22.3 ± 3.4 years) participated, including 144 with UW [Body Mass Index (BMI) < 18.5kg/m²], 364 with NW, and 137 with OW or obesity (BMI ≥ 25kg/m²), and 63 patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and 100 with bulimia nervosa (BN). Participants completed questionnaires regarding nutrients consumed, eating behaviors, health behaviors, body image, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms with face to face interviews. The associations between the status of participants and the data were analyzed with NW group as a reference. OW status was associated with overeating and with frequent eating. UW status was associated with less frequent overeating and with longer sleep duration. AN status was associated with less frequent consumption of alcohol. BN status was associated with a larger discrepancy between the ideal and current body shape. Both OW status and BN were associated with more obsessive-compulsive symptoms. The results suggested that certain dietary, health, and psychological factors are associated with extreme weight conditions and EDs.     

Comparison of energy and nutrient intakes among meals and snacks of adolescent males

BACKGROUND: Eating behaviors developed during adolescence can have immediate health implications and influence future chronic disease risk. The objectives of this study were to determine and compare the distribution of energy and nutrient intakes among meals and snacks, and relate eating occasion frequency to body mass index (BMI) of adolescent males. METHODS: Healthy adolescent males (n = 180) completed 3-day food records. Following analysis for energy and nutrient intakes, 3-day averages and frequencies were computed for all meals and snacks. RESULTS: Dinner was the largest contributor of energy, macronutrients, cholesterol, dietary fiber, and sodium, whereas both dinner and breakfast were the largest contributors of calcium and iron. On average, subjects consumed 1.63 snacks/day, with 77% consuming > or = 1 snack/day. BMI was significantly greater and energy intake was significantly lower in subjects having < or = 3 eating occasions/day relative to 4 or > or = 6 eating occasions/day. The 26% of subjects classified as inconsistent breakfast consumers had significantly higher BMIs and lower iron intakes relative to consistent breakfast consumers. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides valuable information regarding eating occasion frequency and contribution of meals and snacks to energy and nutrient intakes in adolescent males. Such information could be used to improve nutrition education programs for adolescents aimed at chronic disease prevention.     

Food branding influences ad libitum intake differently in children depending on weight status. Results of a pilot study

Environmental changes have facilitated the rapid increase in childhood obesity. One such change is increased presence of food marketing which promotes intake of high-fat, energy-dense foods. This study tested the hypotheses that overweight (OW) children are more sensitive to the intake-enhancing effects of food branding than non-OW children, and that the relationship between weight status and intake of branded foods is mediated by level of food brand awareness. Forty-three non-OW (n = 23) and OW (n = 20) children from diverse ethnic backgrounds participated in four dinnertime visits to test their intake of meals where food brands were present (“branded”) or absent (“unbranded”). Food brand awareness was assessed by testing children's abilities to match food brand logos with correct foods and name specific brands from recall. Weight and height were measured on the first visit to determine BMI z-score and weight status. OW children consumed significantly more energy per meal than non-OW. Child age and brand awareness were positively associated. OW children consumed an additional 40 kcal in branded vs. unbranded meals whereas non-OW children consumed 45 kcal less in branded meals. Overweight children showed greater responsiveness to food branding, and they may be at risk in environments that are highly inundated with messages about food.     

Body image perception, dietary practices and physical activity of overweight and normal weight Malaysian female adolescents

Body image plays an important role in the management of body weight, especially among female adolescents. This study examined the differences in body image perception, weight management knowledge, eating behaviour and physical activity between overweight and normal weight Malaysian female adolescents. Body mass index screening was done on 588 secondary school students to identify overweight (OW) and normal weight (NW) subjects. A BMI-for-age of => 85th percentile and between => 5th and <85th percentile were used as cut-offs for identifying suitable subjects of overweight and normal weight, respectively. Fifty girls identified as being OW were matched for age and ethnicity with 50 NW students. Subjects completed a self-administered questionnaire on demographics, eating behaviour and physical activity, a weight management knowledge inventory (WMKI) and the Body Silhouette Chart. The study sample comprised Malays (40%), Chinese (30%) and Indians (30%) with a mean age of 14.76 ± 1.15 years. The majority of them were from families with a monthly household income of less than RM1,000. Significantly more NW subjects (χ2=6.112, p=0.013) than OW subjects had incorrect perception of their current body weight status. The WMKI revealed that more OW subjects (64%) than NW subjects (52%) had a low level of weight management knowledge. Eating behaviour patterns were not significantly different between OW and NW subjects, but more OW subjects skipped one or more daily meals as compared to their NW counterparts (χ2=0.174, p=0.010). Physical activity patterns were similar in both groups. Healthy eating and physical activity promotion programmes in schools should include sound weight management practices.     

Association of Snacking Frequency,Size, and Energy Density with Weight Status among Preschool-Aged Children in the United States

BackgroundSnacking (ie, eating between meals) is common among US preschool-aged children, but associations with weight status are unclear.ObjectiveThis research evaluated associations of snack frequency, size, and energy density as well as the percent of daily energy from snacking with weight status and sociodemographic characteristics among US children aged 2 to 5 years.DesignCross-sectional analysis of 2007-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data using two, caregiver proxy, 24-hour dietary recalls.Participants/settingUS children aged 2 to 5 years (n = 3,313) with at least one snack occasion over 2 days of intake.Main outcome measuresSnacking parameters included frequency (number of occasions per day), size (kilocalories per occasion), and energy density (kilocalories per gram per occasion) as well as percent of daily energy from snacking.Statistical analysesGeneralized linear regression models evaluated associations of snacking with child weight status (ie, normal weight and overweight/obesity), adjusting for survey weights, energy misreporting, mean meal size, and sociodemographic covariates.ResultsChildren with overweight/obesity consumed more frequent snacks (2.8 [0.06] vs 2.5 [0.03] snacks/day, respectively; P < 0.001), larger snacks (188 [4] vs 162 [23] kcal/occasion, respectively; P < 0.001), and a greater percent of daily energy from snacking (29.80% [1.00%] vs 26.09% [0.40%], respectively; P < 0.001) than children with normal weight. Mean snack frequency and size as well as percentage of daily energy from snacking varied with child age, gender, and head of household education. Associations of snacking with child race and ethnicity were less consistent.ConclusionsThese nationally representative findings provide evidence that the consumption of larger, more frequent snacks is associated with overweight/obesity among US children aged 2 to 5 years and snacking varies by sociodemographic characteristics.     

The relationship of eating frequency and caloric density to energy intake among rural Mexican preschool children

The energy intake of children in a population characterized by chronic malnutrition was measured in order to examine the effects of eating frequency and caloric density. Forty-five children aged 33-60 months were each observed continuously throughout one day. Food intake was determined by weighing and all aspects of food-related behavior were recorded. The children ate on average 13.5 +/- 4 times each day. Children who ate more frequently had significantly higher energy intake than children who ate fewer than 13 times [1655 vs. 1395 kcal (6928 vs. 5839 kJ)], and the excess was consumed during snacks. The caloric density of all foods consumed averaged 121 kcal (507 kJ) per 100 g. While children served meals of low caloric density [less than 100 kcal (419 kJ) per 100 g] consumed less energy at meals than did other children [709 vs. 900 kcal (2968 vs. 3767 kJ)], they consumed more energy from snacks [917 vs. 617 kcal (3839 vs. 2583 kJ]. Thus, total energy intake did not differ significantly between children served meals of lower vs. higher caloric density.     

Nibbling: frequency and relationship to BMI, pattern of eating, and shape, weight, and eating concerns among university women

Objective

Nibbling has been defined by the Eating Disorder Examination (EDE 16.0) as eating in an unplanned and repetitious manner between meals and snacks without an accompanying sense of loss of control. We investigated the nature and frequency of nibbling in young women.

Method

Fifty-eight university women aged 19-41 years with an average BMI of 22.8 (4.8) were administered the EDE-interview.

Results

Only 9% of women reported no nibbling during the preceding 28 days, 14% nibbled on 1-5 days; 40% on 6-12 days; 21% on 13-15 days and 17% nibbled on 16-28 days. Nibbling was not significantly related to BMI, frequency of meals, binge eating, dietary restraint, or shape, eating, or weight concerns. Significant inverse relationships were found between nibbling and food avoidance (−.27, p = .03) and sensitivity to weight gain (−.26; p = .04).

Discussion

Nibbling occurred frequently among young women but did not appear to have significant consequences for BMI, the overall pattern or eating, shape or weight concerns, or for any measured pathological eating behaviors.     

Patterns of eating and abstinence in women treated for bulimia nervosa

OBJECTIVE: The current study sought to determine whether there is an optimal pattern of eating leading to cessation of binge eating and purging in bulimic women. METHOD: Data on the number of meals and snacks consumed were obtained from the Eating Disorders Examination (EDE) pretreatment and posttreatment, for individuals participating in a randomized controlled study comparing cognitive-behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy. Records were available for 158 participants. RESULTS: The numbers of meals and snacks eaten from pretreatment to posttreatment increased significantly. A pattern of eating with at least 80 meals combined with at least 21 afternoon snacks within a 28-day period was associated with an abstinence rate of 70%. In contrast, for subjects having 72-80 meals, those having greater than 11 evening snacks have an abstinence rate of 4%. CONCLUSION: The critical elements of the pattern of eating related to abstinence appear to be the total number of meals consumed and the timing of snacks.     

Nutrient intakes and snacking frequency in female students

Background: Snacking can have the negative image of being detrimental to the diet, because snack foods are commonly thought of as providing only 'empty calories'—high in energy but low in micronutrients. This observational study looked at the nutrient density of snacks and meals, and at the effect of eating frequency on mean daily nutrient intakes in 44 female students (aged 17–26 years). Methods: Baseline dietary data from an existing intervention study were re-analysed. Eating occasions, taken from 7-day weighed food diaries, were classified as meals or snacks by time of day, and the composition of meals and snacks compared. Subjects were divided into tertiles by eating frequency and their nutrient intakes compared. Results: As eating frequency increased, the number of snacks and the number of different snack items in the diet increased, while the number of meals remained constant. Snacks, overall, were significantly lower in percentage non-alcohol energy from fat and higher in percentage non-alcohol energy from carbohydrate. Snacks had lower nutrient densities than meals for non-starch polysaccharide (NSP), minerals and vitamins except vitamin C. However, there were no significant differences between the top and bottom tertiles of snacking frequency for overall percentage energy from fat, protein or carbohydrate, or intakes of micro-nutrients. The top tertile tended to be leaner and have higher energy intakes than infrequent eaters (not significant). There was a significant negative correlation between eating frequency and body mass index (BMI). Conclusions: It is concluded that snacking per se did not compromise diet quality in this group, and that those with a high snacking frequency were eating more in general and choosing a wider variety of foods, resulting in a balanced intake of nutrients.     

The Beneficial Effect of Cinnamon and Red Capsicum Intake on Postprandial Changes in Plasma Metabolites Evoked by a High-Carbohydrate Meal in Men with Overweight/Obesity

The relationship of high-carbohydrate (HC) meal intake to metabolic syndrome is still not fully explained. Metabolomics has the potential to indicate metabolic pathways altered by HC meals, which may improve our knowledge regarding the mechanisms by which HC meals may contribute to metabolic syndrome development. The fasting and postprandial metabolic response to HC or normo-carbohydrate (NC) meals with/without cinnamon + capsicum intake was evaluated using untargeted metabolomics and compared between normal-weight (NW) and overweight/obese (OW/OB) healthy men. Healthy male participants (age-matched) were divided into two groups (12 subjects per group). One was composed of men with normal weight (NW) and the other of men with overweight/obesity (OW/OB). On separate visits (with 2–3 week intervals), the participants received standardized HC or NC meals (89% or 45% carbohydrates, respectively). Fasting (0 min) and postprandial (30, 60, 120, 180 min) blood were collected for untargeted plasma metabolomics. Based on each metabolic feature’s intensity change in time, the area under the curve (AUC) was calculated. Obtained AUCs were analyzed using multivariate statistics. Several metabolic pathways were found dysregulated after an HC meal in people from the OW/OB group but not the NW group. The consumption of HC meals by people with overweight/obesity led to a substantial increase in AUC, mainly for metabolites belonging to phospholipids and fatty acid amides. The opposite was observed for selected sphingolipids. The intake of cinnamon and capsicum normalized the concentration of selected altered metabolites induced by the intake of HC meals. A HC meal may induce an unfavourable postprandial metabolic response in individuals with overweight/obesity, and such persons should avoid HC meals.     

Effect of prior exercise on postprandial triglycerides in overweight young women after ingesting a high-carbohydrate meal

To examine the effect of prior exercise on the postprandial lipid response to a high-carbohydrate meal in normal-weight (NW=BMI <25) and overweight (OW=BMI >or= 25) women (age 18-25), 10 NW and 10 OW participants completed 2 conditions separated by 1 month. In the morning, the day after control (CT=no exercise) or exercise conditions (EX=60 min cycling at 60% VO(2peak)), participants consumed a high-carbohydrate meal (80% CHO, 15% protein, 5% fat; 75 kJ/kg BM) followed by 6 hr of hourly blood sampling. Blood was analyzed for triglycerides (TG), blood glucose (BG), and insulin (IN). TG levels over the 6-hr period were lower in NW than OW (p= .021) and lower in EX than in CT (p= .006). Area under the curve (AUC) for TG was lower in NW than OW (p= .016) and EX than CT (p= .003). There were nonsignificant tendencies for reduced BG over time (p= .053) and AUC (p= .083), and IN AUC was lower in EX than in CT (p= .040) for both groups and lower in NW than in OW (p= .039). Prior exercise improved TG levels after a high-carbohydrate meal in both groups, and OW women demonstrated a greater postprandial lipemic response than NW regardless of condition. There were tendencies for improved glucose removal with prior exercise in NW vs. OW. Acute exercise can improve postprandial TG responses and might also improve postprandial BG and IN after a large meal in NW and OW young women.     

Increasing the protein content of meals and its effect on daily energy intake

High-protein preloads have been shown to enhance satiety, but little is known about the satiating effects of protein in more typical situations when meals are consumed ad libitum. To investigate the effects of protein in amounts commonly consumed over a day, a crossover study was conducted in 2008. In this experiment, 18 normal-weight women consumed ad libitum lunch and dinner entrées 1 day a week that were covertly varied in protein content (10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 30% energy). Entrées were manipulated by substituting animal protein for starchy ingredients and were matched for energy density, fat content, palatability, and appearance. Unmanipulated breakfasts and evening snacks were consumed ad libitum. Participants rated their hunger and fullness before and after meals as well as the taste and appearance of entrées. Data were analyzed using a mixed linear model. Results showed that mean 24-hour protein intake increased significantly across conditions, from 44±2 g/day in the 10% protein condition to 82±6 g/day in the 30% condition. Daily energy intake did not differ significantly across the 10% to 30% protein conditions (means 1,870±93, 1,887±93, 1,848±111, 1,876±100, and 1,807±98 kcal in the 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% energy groups, respectively). There were no significant differences in hunger and fullness ratings across conditions or in taste and appearance ratings of the manipulated entrées. This study showed that varying the protein content of several entrées consumed ad libitum did not differentially influence daily energy intake or affect ratings of satiety.     

Slower Eating Speed Lowers Energy Intake in Normal-Weight but not Overweight/Obese Subjects

BackgroundThe effect of eating speed on energy intake by weight status is unclear.ObjectiveTo examine whether the effect of eating speed on energy intake is the same in normal-weight and overweight/obese subjects.DesignThe effect of slow and fast eating speed on meal energy intake was assessed in a randomized crossover design.Participants/settingThirty-five normal-weight (aged 33.3±12.5 years; 14 women and 21 men) subjects and 35 overweight/obese (44.1±13.0 years; 22 women and 13 men) subjects were studied on 2 days during lunch in a metabolic kitchen.InterventionThe subjects consumed the same meal, ad libitum, but at different speeds during the two eating conditions. The weight and energy content of the food consumed was assessed. Perceived hunger and fullness were assessed at specific times using visual analog scales.Statistical analysesEffect of eating speed on ad libitum energy intake, eating rate (energy intake/meal duration), energy density (energy intake per gram of food and water consumed), and satiety were assessed by mixed-model repeated measures analysis.ResultsMeal energy intake was significantly lower in the normal-weight (804.5±438.9 vs 892.6±330.2 kcal; P=0.04) but not the overweight/obese (667.3±304.1 vs 724.8±355.5 kcal; P=0.18) subjects during the slow vs the fast eating condition. Both groups had lower meal energy density (P=0.005 and P=0.001, respectively) and eating rate (P<0.0001 in both groups) during the slow vs the fast eating condition. Both groups reported less hunger (P=0.01 and P=0.03, respectively), and the normal-weight subjects reported more fullness (P=0.02) at 60 minutes after the meal began during the slow compared with the fast eating condition. There was no eating speed by weight status interaction for any of the variables.ConclusionsEating slowly significantly lowered meal energy intake in the normal-weight but not in the overweight/obese group. It lowered eating rate and energy density in both groups. Eating slowly led to lower hunger ratings in both groups and increased fullness ratings in the normal-weight group at 60 minutes from when the meal began.     

Frequency of eating occasions reported by young New Zealand Polynesian and European women

The frequency of eating occasions reported by young New Zealand Polynesian and European women was examined. The timing and content of meals and snacks were analysed from 80 self-reported seven-day food diaries from a previous study of 80 young women (39 New Zealand Polynesian and 41 European) aged between 18 and 27 years. Nineteen Polynesian and 20 European women had a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30 kg.m-2 and were classified as obese. Breakfast was eaten more often by the European women than the Polynesian (median 4 versus 3 times.week-1, P = 0.012). Eleven (28%) of the Polynesian women skipped breakfast every day of the study week compared to only three (7%) of the Europeans (P = 0.019). Dinner was eaten more frequently by the European women (P = 0.020) who also ate significantly more meals during the week than the Polynesian (P = 0.039). Non-obese Europeans ate breakfast more frequently than their obese counterparts (P = 0.002) while no significant difference was observed between non-obese and obese Polynesians. The obese European and Polynesian groups reported similar patterns of breakfast consumption which differed significantly from the non-obese Europeans (P = 0.008). The young women in this study did not eat breakfast every day with the young Polynesian women eating fewer meals than the Europeans. There was an association between ethnic origin, body size and eating patterns in the women. These findings in comparison with previous studies in other countries indicate that the frequency of eating breakfast may be declining with time.     

Meals and snacks among elderly self-managing and disabled women

AIM: The aim of this study was to describe the frequency and distribution of self-managing and disabled elderly women's eating events, as well as to investigate which definition/names the women had given their different eating events and to categorise these into meals and snacks. An additional aim was to study the composition of meals and snacks, and analyse the nutritional significance of these eating events in terms of energy and macronutrients. SUBJECTS: Elderly women, both self-managing (n=139) and disabled (n=63; with Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis or stroke), aged 64-88 years, and living at home participated. METHODS: A repeated 24 h recall and an estimated food diary for three consecutive days were used. RESULTS: The eating events defined by the women that were categorised as meals contributed 74% of the total daily energy intake, while snacks contributed 22-23%. The meals that the women had defined as dinner, was the most energy dense meal. The frequency of eating events not defined by the women, was 30-34%, but contributed only 3-4% of the total daily energy intake. The disabled women had a significantly lower energy content in meals and most snacks, compared to the self-managing women. CONCLUSION: The main conclusion was that elderly women still living at home had their meals distributed during the day and that these meals were characterised by individuality and flexibility.     

Eating styles, overweight and obesity in young adult twins

OBJECTIVE: To explore the association of eating styles with overweight and obesity in young adults, controlling for identical genetic background in monozygotic twins. DESIGN: Prospective twin cohort study. SETTING: Finland, 1991-2002. SUBJECTS: Two-hundred and thirty-three women and 2060 men from the FinnTwin16 study, aged 16 years at baseline (T1), and ranging from 22 to 27 years at the time of the nutritional assessment (T4). METHODS: Eating styles (Restrictive/overeating, health-conscious, snacking, emotional and externally induced), self-reported at T4, were contrasted with body mass indices (BMIs) at T1 and T4. RESULTS: At T4, obesity (BMI>or=30Kg/m(2)) was significantly cross-sectionally associated with restrictive eating, frequent snacks, eating in the evening, avoiding fatty foods and failure to maintain healthy eating patterns. These associations were independent of BMI at T1. Obese women self-reported more vulnerability to external eating cues and comfort eating than normal-weight women. However, in a multivariable model, only restrictive/overeating and health-conscious eating styles were significant correlates of obesity at T4, independent of gender and BMI at T1. When we controlled for genetic background restricting the analysis to the 39 female and 45 male monozygotic twin pairs discordant for obesity or overweight (BMI>or=25Kg/m(2)), restrictive/overeating eating style was still statistically significantly associated with excess weight. CONCLUSIONS: The eating styles of obese young adults differ from their normal-weight counterparts: restrictive eating, overeating and fewer healthy food choices are associated with obesity. Different eating styles may partially explain weight differences in individuals with identical genetic background.     

Eating frequency and snacking habits in women with polycystic ovary syndrome

Background: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects up to 10% of women of reproductive age in the UK and obesity is a common feature. Food craving has been anecdotally reported by women with PCOS (Herriot et al., 2008) and some studies suggest that increased eating frequency (EF) and snacking may contribute to increased energy intake (Hampl et al., 2003). This study aimed to describe the EF of women with PCOS and investigate the impact of EF on energy intake and body mass index (BMI). Methods: Seven‐day food diaries were posted to and completed by 131 women diagnosed with PCOS, who were also asked to report their age, weight and height. Eating episodes were categorised as drinks, mixed meals, and savoury or sweet snacks (foods consumed between meals). BMI was estimated using self‐reported weight and height and categorised into <25, 25–29.9 and >30 kg m^?2. Results: All participants completed a food diary, with 122 providing self‐reported height and weight. Mean (SD) age was 32.0 (6.1) years, and mean (SD) BMI was 27.9 (7.9) kg m^?2. Of those who provided details of height and weight, 57% (47%) women had a BMI <25 kg m^?2, 24% (20%) had a BMI 25–29.9 kg m^?2 and 41% (33%) had a BMI of >30 kg m^?2. Mean (SD) energy intake was 8259 (1644) kJ day^?1 [1974 (393) kcal day^?1] and mean carbohydrate intake was 226 (58) g/day. A paired t‐test was used to compare consumption of sweet and savoury snacks. A one‐way analysis of variance was used to analyse differences in energy intake, and to compare stratified BMI groups and EF including drinks. Assumption of homogeneity of variance was violated when analysing differences in stratified BMI and mean total EF excluding drinks; therefore, a robust test of equality of means was used instead. A Pearson product–moment correlation was used to explore correlations between energy or macronutrient intake and EF.

Table 1. Energy intake and eating frequency in women with PCOS

Dietary Intake Patterns of Low-Income Urban African-American Adolescents

Unhealthy eating increases risks for chronic disease. Few studies have examined the multifaceted aspects of dietary intake of low-income, urban African-American adolescents. This study aimed to describe dietary patterns including energy, nutrients, food groups, and diet quality and to identify areas to guide future interventions. Baseline data for a school-based obesity prevention study were collected from 382 African-American adolescents (10- to 14-year-olds) from four Chicago, IL, public schools in 2003. Diet was assessed using a 152-item food frequency questionnaire. Diet quality was measured using a modified version of the US Department of Agriculture Healthy Eating Index (HEI) and compared to published estimates for a nationwide sample. Participants reported high energy intakes and several unhealthy eating patterns: 58.6% consumed one or more servings of sweetened beverages per day and 15.7% consumed three or more servings per day; average fried food consumption was high (1.4 servings/day), 58.4% consumed one or more serving per day; and 75% consumed three or more three snacks per day. Only 49% of participants met the recommended three servings of dairy foods per day. Compared to a national, mostly white sample, participants had lower HEI scores (P<0.05); mean score was 66.0±12.8 (100=maximum HEI score) vs 70.3±13.0 in boys vs girls, one third had scores <60 (“needs improvement”) and only 15% scored >80 (“good”). This study reveals key areas of problematic dietary patterns for future interventions targeting low-income African-American adolescents, including frequent intakes of calorie-dense, low nutrient-rich foods, such as fried foods, snacks, and sweetened beverages.