不同条件下NOS阳性神经元在脊髓中央管周围灰质的表达

目的　探讨不同条件下一氧化氮合酶 (nitricoxidesynthase ,NOS)阳性神经元在脊髓中央管周围灰质的分布及数量变化 ,分析脊髓中央管周围灰质与针刺镇痛的关系。方法　应用NADPH d法 ,观察在正常情况下、疼痛刺激下、电针刺激下、疼痛加电针刺激下NOS阳性神经元在脊髓中央管周围灰质的表达。结果　正常情况下 ,脊髓中央管周围灰质有少量NOS阳性细胞 ;疼痛刺激后 ,NOS阳性细胞数目增多 (P <0 .0 1) ;单纯电针刺激下 ,NOS阳性细胞较正常组无明显变化 (P >0 .0 5 ) ;疼痛刺激加电针刺激后 ,NOS阳性细胞数较疼痛刺激组明显减少 (P <0 .0 1) ,而与正常组相比无明显变化 (P >0 .0 5 )。结论　抑制疼痛刺激引起的NOS阳性细胞数目增多 ,可能是电针镇痛的机制之一     

脊髓刺激术对神经病理性痛模型大鼠痛行为和脊髓背角内小胶质细胞激活的影响

目的:探讨脊髓刺激术(spinal cord stimulation,SCS)对神经病理性痛(neuropathic pain,NP)模型大鼠痛行为及脊髓背角内小胶质细胞激活的影响。方法:成年大鼠20只,随机分为4组:(1)正常对照组(control组);(2)SCS组:正常大鼠给予SCS刺激;(3)脊神经结扎(spinal nerve ligation,SNL)假刺激组(SNL+shamSCS组):SNL且植入SCS装置,但不刺激;(4)SNL+SCS组:SNL且给予SCS刺激。术前连续3 d、术后第5 d检测各组大鼠足底机械痛敏阈值(mechanical withdrawal threshold,MWT)。SCS组和SNL+SCS组术后第2-5 d给予SCS刺激,每d持续8 h;且在每次给予SCS 8 h刺激前进行90 min行为学测试,即SCS刺激30 min,以及刺激结束后的60 min内(共90 min),每15 min测量一次MWT。在第5 d给予SCS 8 h刺激结束后处死动物,利用免疫组织化学染色结合平均光密度(average optical density,AOD)分析的方法检测各组大鼠腰5节段脊髓背角内小胶质细胞特异性标志物OX-42的表达情况。结果:(1)行为学结果显示:术后第5 d,SNL+shamSCS组和SNL+SCS组大鼠手术侧后爪的MWT由术前26.00±0.0 g分别降至5.50±0.96 g和6.40±0.40 g(P<0.05);SNL+SCS组给予SCS刺激30 min后大鼠手术侧后爪的MWT明显有所提高,达16.20±2.60 g,与刺激前(6.40±0.40 g)相比有显著性差异(P<0.05);但停止SCS刺激60 min后,大鼠的MWT明显有所下降,与刺激前几乎没有明显差别。(2)免疫组化染色结果显示:术后第5 d,SNL+SCS组脊髓背角内OX-42的表达明显弱于SNL+shamSCS组,但二者都强于control组和SCS组;AOD结果也证实:SNL+SCS组大鼠脊髓背角内OX-42的AOD(1.29±0.28)明显低于SNL+shamSCS组(2.66±0.38),但仍高于control组(0.14±0.21)和SCS组(0.24±0.08)。结论:SCS对SNL模型大鼠的神经病理性痛有较好的镇痛效果;该作用可能与SCS刺激显著抑制脊髓背角内小胶质细胞的激活密切相关。     

中缝大核—内源性镇痛系统的重要驿站

中缝大核(NRM)是内源性镇痛系统的重要驿站,是对脊髓背角和三叉神经感觉核痛敏神经元发放下行抑制性控制的主要起始部位。吗啡镇痛、脑局部刺激产生的镇痛以及针刺镇痛效应都与这个核团的功能有关。     

坐骨神经选择性损伤痛模型小鼠脊髓背角线粒体解偶连蛋白UCP4的表达变化

目的:观察线粒体保护蛋白解偶联蛋白4(uncoupling protein 4,UCP4)在坐骨神经选择性损伤(sparednerve injury,SNI)模型小鼠脊髓背角中的表达变化。方法:健康C57BL/6小鼠分为假手术对照组(n=21)和坐骨神经分支选择性损伤SNI组(n=21),实验组损伤后饲养3,7,14 d。行为学采用测定小鼠热痛阈和Von Frey机械性痛阈;用免疫荧光组织化学染色法检测对比小鼠脊髓L3-6节段背角内UCP4免疫阳性细胞的数量。结果:SNI术后3 d,小鼠手术侧热痛阈和机械性痛阈明显低于假手术组,术后14 d达最低值。UCP4分布于正常小鼠脊髓背角,SNI后3 d损伤组小鼠脊髓背角中的UCP4表达降低,图像分析表明UCP4的光密度与对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);脊髓背角中UCP4的表达在14 d时其降低程度最明显,图像分析表明光密度与对照组、3d和7 d比较,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:SNI后脊髓背角线粒体保护蛋白UCP4表达降低可能参与神经病理性疼痛的中枢敏化过程。     

脊髓背角5-羟色胺纤维的来源和超微结构分布——HRP与免疫细胞化学结合法研究和免疫电镜观察

本文用HRP与免疫细胞化学结合法研究和免疫电镜观察进一步证实了脊髓背角内5-羟色胺(5-HT)能末梢的来源及其超微结构特征。结果表明:脊髓背角内5-HT能轴突末梢主要来自延髓中缝大核及腹侧网状结构。脊髓背角内5-HT免疫反应阳性结构见于Ⅰ层及Ⅱ层外带,为细的无髓纤维和有髓纤维。标记末梢与未标记末梢之间主要形成轴-轴突触(标记末梢可为突触前成分,也可是突触后成分),偶尔可见轴-树突触,未见非突触释放的形态学图象。根据其超微结构特征,我们推测脊髓背角内5-HT能系统不是以弥散的非突触方式影响有关结构,而是以突触方式直接或间接影响背角中间神经元的兴奋性,和直接抑制一级传入冲动而发挥其镇痛作用。     

5-HT_1受体亚型mRNAs在坐骨神经分支选择损伤模型大鼠脊髓背角的表达变化

为探讨脊髓内5-HT1受体亚型在神经病理性痛信息传递和调控中的作用,本研究利用反转录聚合酶链式反应(RT-PCR)技术观察了坐骨神经分支选择性损伤(SNI)模型大鼠脊髓背角内5-HT1A、5-HT1B、5-HT1D、5-HT1E和5-HT1F受体亚型mR-NAs表达变化。结果表明:损伤侧脊髓背角内5-HT1A受体亚型mRNA的表达水平在术后3d明显增高,7d达到高峰,随后开始下降,术后28d与正常对照相比仍有显著变化;5-HT1B受体亚型mRNA的表达水平也于术后3d开始显著增高,此后持续升高,至21d达到高峰,28d时有轻微下调,但高于对照水平;未观察到损伤侧脊髓背角内5-HT1D受体亚型mRNA表达水平的显著变化。5-HT1F受体亚型mRNA的表达水平于术后4d显著增高,此后一直维持该表达水平至28d。上述受体亚型在非损伤侧脊髓背角内的表达水平均无变化。在脊髓背角内未检测到5-HT1E受体亚型mRNA的表达。上述5-HT1受体亚型mRNA在SNI模型脊髓背角内具有不同的表达变化特点,提示不同的5-HT1各受体亚型在神经病理性痛信息的传递和调节中可能发挥着不同的作用。     

大鼠延髓和脊髓背角的PKCγ阳性神经元向中脑导水管周围灰质的投射

目的　观察延髓和脊髓背角内蛋白激酶Cγ亚单位 (PKCγ)样阳性神经元向中脑导水管周围灰质(PAG)的投射。　方法　荧光金 (FG)逆行追踪与PKCγ的免疫荧光组织化学染色相结合的双标记技术。　结果　PKCγ样阳性神经元主要分布于延髓和脊髓背角的Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ层及脊髓的外侧脊核 ;将FG注入PAG后 ,在延髓和脊髓背角的Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ层及脊髓的外侧脊核内可见FG标记神经元 ;部分FG标记神经元呈PKCγ样阳性 ,FG PKCγ双标神经元也主要见于延髓和脊髓背角的Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ层及脊髓的外侧脊核。　结论　延髓和脊髓背角的PKCγ阳性神经元可能参与将伤害性刺激信息向PAG的传递。     

小鼠脊髓背角Ⅰ层-PAG投射神经元短时程突触可塑性的特征研究

目的:研究小鼠脊髓背角Ⅰ层向中脑导水管周围灰质(periaquaductal gray,PAG)投射神经元在双脉冲刺激下表现出来的短时程突触可塑性的特点。方法:选取18~21 d C57/Bl6小鼠,脑立体定位注射2.5%Di I(100 nl)至PAG,2~3 d后制备400~650μm带背根的脊髓薄片,孵育1 h后用全细胞膜片钳技术记录Di Ⅰ阳性标记的脊髓背角Ⅰ层向PAG投射(spino-PAG)神经元,在判断其为单突触传递后,给予时间间隔为110 ms的双脉冲刺激诱致刺激外周C纤维诱发的C-e EPSCs,观察其短时程突触可塑性的特点。结果:(1)应用脑立体定位注射技术向PAG注射荧光素Di Ⅰ后可在脊髓背角Ⅰ层检测到逆行标记的神经元,提示该神经元为向PAG投射的神经元(spino-PAG投射神经元)。(2)在给予脊神经背根时间间隔为110 ms的双脉冲刺激后,脊髓背角Ⅰ层spino-PAG投射神经元发生不同程度和性质的短时程突触可塑性改变。其中,52.8%(28/53)的神经元表现为短时程的双脉冲易化(paired-pulse facilitation,PPF),其PPR的平均值为1.76±0.18;47.2%(25/53)的神经元表现为短时程的双脉冲抑制(paired-pulse depression,PPD),其PPR的平均值为0.61±0.05。结论:双脉冲刺激脊神经背根诱致C-e EPSCs可使脊髓背角I层spino-PAG神经元呈现短时程易化和短时程抑制的突触可塑性特征,提示这种短时程突触可塑性可能在痛信息的传递和敏化过程中发挥重要作用。     

刺激大鼠尾核对导水管周围灰质和中缝大核神经元活动的影响

我们以往的工作表明刺核激导水管周围灰质(PAG)能够激活中缝大核(NRM)神经元的自发放电和抑制伤害感受性反应;而电解损毁PAG后还看到NRM神经元自发放电增加的现象,似乎PAG对NRM存在有兴奋和抑制双重作用。此外我们还观察到刺激尾核头部可激活NRM,而这种效应可被PAG微量注射纳洛酮所阻断。本文用两根玻璃微电极同时记录PAG和NRM缝-脊神经元的放电,观察两者活动的相关规律性,以及刺激尾核对它们的效应。     

挤压伤后脊髓神经元NGF表达的变化

本研究运用免疫组织化学 ABC法和灰度值测定探讨脊髓挤压伤后 NGF在脊髓腹角和背角神经元表达的早期变化。结果显示 :NGF主要分布于脊髓灰质神经元的胞核及胞浆 ;腹角阳性神经元数量在损伤后 2 1d组较正常组明显增多 (P<0 .0 1) ,而背角的阳性神经元在损伤后 2 4h、7d及 2 1d组均较正常组明显增多 (P<0 .0 1)。腹角和背角神经元的阳性灰度值在挤压伤后各组均较正常组显著降低 (P<0 .0 1)。提示 ,内源性 NGF增加对脊髓损伤修复具有重要作用     

Quantitative comparison of inhibition in spinal cord of nociceptive information by stimulation in periaqueductal gray or nucleus raphe magnus of the cat

The descending inhibition of spinal neuronal responses by focal electrical stimulation in the periaqueductal gray (PAG) or nucleus raphe magnus (NRM) was quantitatively studied and compared in the anesthetized, paralyzed cat. All 60 dorsal horn neurons studied were driven by electrical stimulation of hindlimb cutaneous nerves at strengths supramaximal for activation of A-alpha,delta- and C-fibers, and 52 also responded to noxious radiant heating (50 degrees C, 10 s) of the skin of the foot- or toepads; 8 units had receptive fields in the hairy skin of the hindlimb. All neurons studied also responded to mechanical stimuli; recording sites were located in laminae I-VI of the dorsal horn. The inhibition of spinal neuronal heat-evoked responses by stimulation in the PAG or NRM differed quantitatively when examined on the same spinal neurons. Inhibition of heat-evoked spinal neuronal responses occurred at a lower threshold of stimulation in the NRM than in the PAG. The mean intensity of stimulation in the NRM producing an attenuation to 50% of the control 50 degrees C heat-evoked response was significantly lower than the mean intensity of stimulation in the PAG producing a 50% attenuation of the same spinal units. The mean magnitude of inhibition produced by stimulation in the NRM was significantly greater than that produced on the same spinal units by the same intensity of stimulation in the PAG. However, stimulation in the NRM and PAG produced the same mean percent change in inhibition per 100-microA increase in the intensity of stimulation. Thus, the slopes of the recruitment of descending inhibition from the PAG and the NRM as a function of increasing intensities of stimulation are the same; the lines of recruitment of inhibition are parallel. When examined on the same dorsal horn units, stimulation in the PAG influenced their intensity coding to graded noxious heating of the skin differently than did stimulation in the NRM. The responses of the class 2 and class 3 spinal units examined to increasing temperatures of heat applied to the skin was a monotonic linear function throughout the temperature range studied (42-50 degrees C). Stimulation in the PAG decreased the slope of the stimulus-response function (SRF) without affecting unit thresholds of response, thus influencing the gain control of nociceptive transmission in the dorsal horn. Stimulation in the NRM produced a parallel shift to the right of the SRF, influencing the set point and threshold of response.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

脊髓刺激术对神经病理性痛模型大鼠脊髓背角内NR2B受体和星形胶质细胞激活的影响

目的:探讨脊髓刺激术(spinal cord stimulation,SCS)对L5脊神经结扎(spinal nerve ligation,SNL)诱导的神经病理性痛(neuropathic pain,NP)大鼠脊髓背角内NMDA受体亚单位NR2B的表达和星形胶质细胞激活的影响。方法:成年雄性SD大鼠48只,随机分为4组:正常组(不做任何处理);SCS组(植入SCS装置并给予SCS刺激);SNL+sham SCS组(给予SNL手术并植入SCS装置,但不进行刺激);SNL+SCS组(SNL手术并给予SCS刺激)。SCS刺激是在SNL术后第6～10 d进行(8 h/d),第10 d刺激结束后处死动物。运用行为学方法检测慢性痛状态下大鼠后肢对机械性刺激的反应阈值;采用免疫组织化学染色和Western blot方法分别检测脊髓背角内NR2B和星形胶质细胞的标志物GFAP的表达变化。结果:(1)SNL术后大鼠手术侧后足机械性痛敏显著增加,第6～10 d给予SCS刺激后,可观察到大鼠的痛行为学表现有明显缓解;(2)免疫组化结果显示:与SNL+sham SCS组相比,SNL+SCS组大鼠脊髓背角内NR2B和GFAP免疫阳性细胞的数量显著减少;(3)Western blot结果显示:给予SCS刺激后,SNL大鼠腰膨大段脊髓背角内NR2B的表达量显著下调,同时GFAP的表达量也明显有所降低。结论:给予SCS刺激可以有效地缓解SNL模型大鼠的神经病理性痛的行为学表现;该作用可能与SCS刺激抑制脊髓背角内NR2B的表达和星形胶质细胞的激活密切相关。     

Pattern generation in caudal-lumbar and sacrococcygeal segments of the neonatal rat spinal cord

Glutamate is the major excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter in the CNS, including the neocortex, hippocampus, and spinal cord. Normal synaptic transmission is mainly mediated by glutamate AMPA and/or kainate receptors. Glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are normally inactive and only activated when a sufficient postsynaptic depolarization is induced by the activity. Here we show that in sensory synapses of adult mouse, some synaptic responses (26.3% of a total of 38 experiments) between primary afferent fibers and dorsal horn neurons are almost completely mediated by NMDA receptors. Dorsal root stimulation did not elicit any detectable AMPA/kainate receptor-mediated responses in these synapses. Unlike young spinal cord, serotonin alone did not produce any long-lasting synaptic enhancement in adult spinal dorsal horn neurons. However, co-application of the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin and serotonin (5-HT) produced long-lasting enhancement, including the recruitment of functional AMPA receptor-mediated responses. Calcium-sensitive, calmodulin-regulated adenylyl cyclases (AC1, AC8) are required for the enhancement. Furthermore the thresholds for generating action potential responses were decreased, and, in many cases, co-application of forskolin and 5-HT led to the generation of action potentials by previously subthreshold stimulation of primary afferent fibers in the presence of the NMDA receptor blocker 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid. Our results suggest that pure NMDA synapses exist on sensory neurons in adult spinal cord and that they may contribute to functional sensory transmission. The synergistic recruitment of functional AMPA responses by 5-HT and forskolin provides a new cellular mechanism for glutamatergic synapses in mammalian spinal cord.     

大鼠外侧巨细胞旁网状核的传出纤维联系——HRP法研究

用HRP轴■顺、逆行追踪法观察了大鼠外侧巨细胞旁网状核(PGCL)的传出纤维联系。结果表明:①PGCL经轴■顺行传递,可投射到与痛觉及其调控有关的核团,如脊髓背角、三叉神经脊束核、导水管周围灰质、束旁核、外侧颈核、脑干网状结构核群等;PGCL还投射到与调节内脏活动有关的孤束核、迷走神经背核、导水管周围灰质背份、臂旁核、脊髓侧角等;也向三叉神经运动核、下丘等处发出投射纤维。②腰髓注射HRP后,在PGCL中见有较多的标记细胞,主要分布在锥体束外侧和面神经核腹内侧区域,部分细胞亦见于锥体束内及PGCL靠近软脑膜处。③向下丘和孤束核注入HRP以作往返印证,在PGCL见到标记细胞和纤维。     

GDF10在神经病理性疼痛大鼠脊髓中的表达

目的:观察生长和分化因子10(GDF10)在神经病理性疼痛大鼠脊髓中的表达变化。方法:取雄性SD大鼠60只,通过结扎左侧L5脊神经制备神经病理性疼痛模型,于术前1 d,术后当天及术后1 d、3 d、10 d、21d检测大鼠左后爪50%缩爪阈值,并采用免疫荧光染色及Western blot检测大鼠L5脊髓后角GDF10的表达变化。结果:脊神经结扎大鼠在术后1 d缩爪阈值开始降低,自3 d起,与正常对照组相比差异有统计学意义(P0.05),到10 d阈值下降最明显,至21 d呈现持平状态。免疫荧光检测观察到伤侧L5脊髓组织中GDF10主要表达于脊髓背角神经元细胞的胞浆内。GDF10在术后持续降低,到10 d降低最为显著,与正常组相比差异具有统计学意义(P0.05),一直持续低水平表达至21 d。Western blot证实术后10 d脊髓中GDF10蛋白的表达较正常组大鼠明显降低(P0.05)。结论:大鼠脊神经结扎使脊髓背角中GDF10表达减少,其减少可能与大鼠脊神经损伤后对机械刺激引起的疼痛过敏有关联。     

Up-regulation of spinal glutamate transporters contributes to anti-hypersensitive effects of valproate in rats after peripheral nerve injury

Valproate produces analgesia in animals and humans, however, its mechanisms of action are yet unknown. The present study examined effects of repeated administration of valproate on behavioral hypersensitivity and expression of glutamate transporter-1 (GLT-1) and glutamate-aspartate transporter (GLAST) in the spinal dorsal horn in rats after L5-L6 spinal nerve ligation (SNL). SNL significantly reduced mechanical withdrawal threshold and expression of GLT-1 and GLAST in the spinal dorsal horn. Repeated oral administration of valproate reduced hypersensitivity, restored down-regulated expression of GLT-1 and GLAST in the spinal dorsal horn, and enhanced analgesia from the glutamate transporter activator riluzole. This analgesia from valproate was blocked by the selective GLT-1 blocker dihydrokainic acid (DHK). These data suggest that valproate restores down-regulated expression of glutamate transporters in the spinal cord to presumably reduce glutamate signaling and to reduce hypersensitivity after nerve injury, and that combination of valproate with riluzole produces enhanced analgesia which relies on the spinal glutamate transporters.     

电针对慢性内脏痛大鼠脊髓背角降钙素基因相关肽的影响

目的:检测电针对慢性内脏痛大鼠脊髓背角内降钙素基因相关肽(calcitonin gene-related peptide,CGRP)表达的影响。方法:SD大鼠随机分成正常对照组,慢性内脏痛模型组和模型加电针组,每组6只。慢性内脏痛模型采用新生幼鼠结直肠刺激方法制备;模型加电针组选取双侧"足三里"和"上巨虚",疏密波,强度1mA,持续30min,隔日一次,持续四次。记录结直肠扩张刺激下腹外斜肌放电幅值;免疫组织化学法检测各组大鼠胸腰段、腰骶段脊髓背角内CGRP的表达变化。结果:电针能够显著降低内脏痛大鼠结直肠扩张刺激诱导的腹外斜肌放电幅值(P0.05);免疫组织化学染色法显示:CGRP样免疫阳性物质的表达在模型组大鼠的胸腰段、腰骶段脊髓背角内均显著升高(P0.01),而模型加电针组的胸腰段、腰骶段脊髓背角内CGRP的表达与模型组相比有显著降低(P0.01)。结论:电针降低慢性内脏痛敏反应的镇痛机制与减少脊髓背角内CGRP样免疫阳性物质的表达有关。     

炎性痛致大鼠脊髓后角ProBDNF及其受体的表达变化

目的:探讨完全弗氏佐剂(complete Freund’s Adjuvant,CFA)致炎性疼痛后大鼠脊髓后角内ProBDNF及受体P75NTR和Sortilin的表达变化及意义。方法:大鼠随机分为正常组和实验组,实验组大鼠左侧足底皮下注射CFA和生理盐水混合溶剂100μl,建立炎性疼痛模型,实验组包括注射CFA后6 h、1、3、7和14 d组。采用Von Frey纤维测定不同时间点大鼠机械缩足阈值(pawwithdrawal threshold,PWT)的变化;采用免疫组织化学方法检测ProBDNF及P75NTR、Sortilin在脊髓后角的表达变化。结果:足底注射CFA后1 h PWT即下降,并在6 h后达到最低值,3 d后逐渐上调,至14 d仍低于基础值。ProBDNF在正常脊髓后角可见阳性表达;注射CFA后1 d注射侧脊髓后角较对侧其ProBDNF的表达明显上调,上调持续到7 d左右,至14 d逐渐恢复。正常大鼠脊髓后角P75NTR有较弱表达,主要集中在后角I、II层纤维;注射CFA后6 h开始,注射侧脊髓后角内P75NTR的表达明显上调,III-V层的阳性产物也逐渐增加,这种上调持续到7 d左右达高峰,至14 d逐渐下降。Sortilin在正常脊髓后角浅层仅有较弱阳性产物表达,注射CFA后不同时间点脊髓后角Sortilin的表达无明显差异。结论:CFA能诱导大鼠产生为期2周以上的炎性痛病程;脊髓后角ProBDNF和P75NTR的表达上调可能与炎性疼痛中外周痛觉信号的传导和中枢敏化有关。     

Pathways mediating descending control of spinal nociceptive transmission from the nuclei locus coeruleus (LC) and raphe magnus (NRM) in the cat

Summary We have previously reported that electrical stimulation in LC or NRM when tested on the activity of a multireceptive neurone in the spinal cord produced similar inhibitory actions. The present study aimed to define the pathways that mediate this descending inhibitory action in the spinal cord by pharmacological means and by making surgical lesions in the spinal cord or NRM. Attempts to differentiate pathways pharmacologically did not succeed since the i.v. administration of the 5-HT antagonists, methysergide and cinnanserin failed to antagonise descending inhibition evoked from either NRM or LC. Lesions involving a part or whole of the ipsilateral ventral quadrant reduced the inhibition produced from LC to a greater extent than that from NRM in 24 multireceptive neurones. In seven of these neurones stimulation in LC was without any effect after the lesion. In 23 multireceptive neurones recorded after making lesions that spared the ipsilateral ventral quadrant the effects of LC stimulation were unchanged. NRM effectiveness was reduced by an ipsilateral dorsolateral funiculus (DLF) lesion but required a bilateral DLF lesion for an almost complete abolition. Similar results were obtained when the effect of the various lesions were studied on the dorsal root potentials (DRPs) generated from LC or NRM. Lesions in the midline raphe complex, that included NRM, did not block the inhibitory action of LC stimulation. The inhibition produced from both these nuclei was additive whereas excitation was not. We conclude that LC actions in the spinal cord are mediated primarily through a pathway in the ipsilateral ventral quadrant whereas those from NRM are mediated through bilateral projections in DLF. Furthermore, although NRM plays no part in mediating LC actions and separate and independent pathways mediate their spinal action yet these apparently independent pathways have plenty of scope for interaction in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord itself.     

Inhibition of glutamate uptake in the spinal cord induces hyperalgesia and increased responses of spinal dorsal horn neurons to peripheral afferent stimulation

Glutamate is a primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS. Glutamate released from presynaptic neurons is cleared from the synaptic cleft passively by diffusion and actively by glutamate transporters. In this study, the role of glutamate transporters in sensory processing in the spinal cord has been investigated in behavioral, in vivo and in vitro experiments. Intrathecal application of a non-selective glutamate transport inhibitor, L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (10 microl of 100 microM solution) induced hypersensitivity to peripheral mechanical and thermal stimuli. Topical application of L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (100 microM) onto the dorsal surface of the L3-L6 spinal cord increased spontaneous activities, innocuous and noxious stimulus-evoked responses and after-discharges of wide dynamic range neurons in the L4-5 spinal segments. Whole cell recordings made from superficial dorsal horn neurons in an isolated whole spinal cord from newborn rats (2-3 weeks old) revealed that bath-applied L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (100 microM) produced partial membrane depolarization, increased spontaneous action potentials with decreased neuronal membrane resistance and time constant, but without significant changes of capacitance. Finally, the amplitude and duration of primary afferent evoked-excitatory postsynaptic currents recorded from neurons in the substantia gelatinosa in the spinal slices from young adult rats (6-8 weeks old) were increased in the presence of L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (100 microM). This study indicates that glutamate transporters regulate baseline excitability and responses of dorsal horn neurons to peripheral stimulation, and suggests that dysfunction of glutamate transporters may contribute to certain types of pathological pain.