The clinical importance of variations in the surgical anatomy of the superficial peroneal nerve in the mid-third of the lateral leg

The superficial peroneal nerve (SPN) provides fundamental motor and sensory innervation to the leg and foot. A variety of surgical procedures is performed in the vicinity of this nerve, requiring that the surgeon be familiar with its specific anatomy. We dissected 111 legs to define the anatomic position of the SPN and found that the nerve had 4 distinct variations in location. In 77 (69.4%) specimens, the nerve coursed within the lateral compartment of the leg, while in 18 (16.2%) of the legs, the nerve split and contained branches in both the lateral and anterior compartments. The nerve in 7 (6.3%) legs was found within the intermuscular septum, and in 9 (8.1%) of the specimens, the SPN traveled only within the anterior compartment. These results confirm 4 anatomic variants of the SPN, which will aid surgeons in locating the nerve in the lateral aspect of the leg.     

腓浅神经卡压综合征

目的：探讨腓浅神经卡压综合征的解剖学基础和手术方法。方法：对２例腓浅神经卡压综合征患者进行了手术治疗，并观测了６０侧成人腓骨下端的骨前嵴和３０侧尸体小腿标本。结论：“站立性”小腿、足背及踝前疼痛是腓浅神经卡压综合征的特征，是腓浅神经行至腓骨下端骨前嵴时遭受深筋膜或伸肌上支持带卡压所致。治疗方法是切开深筋膜或伸肌上支持带，将腓浅神经远离腓骨前嵴固定于皮下。     

Potential Entrapment of an Accessory Superficial Peroneal Sensory Nerve at the Lateral Malleolus: A Cadaveric Case Report and Review of the Literature

The superficial peroneal nerve presents great anatomic variability regarding its emergence from the crural fascia, course, branching pattern, and distribution area. Entrapment neuropathy of the superficial peroneal nerve has been documented in the published data, resulting in pain and paresthesia over the dorsum of the foot. We report a case of a female cadaver in which an accessory superficial peroneal sensory nerve was encountered. The nerve originated from the main superficial peroneal nerve trunk, proximal to the superficial peroneal nerve emergence from the crural fascia, and followed a subfascial course. After fascial penetration, the supernumerary nerve was distributed to the skin of the proximal dorsum of the foot and lateral malleolar area. A potential entrapment site of the nerve was observed at the lateral malleolar area, because the accessory nerve traveled through a fascial tunnel while perforating the crural fascia, and presented with distinct post-stenotic enlargement at its exit point. The likely presence of such a very rare variant and its potential entrapment is essential for the physician and surgeon to establish a correct diagnosis and avoid complications during procedures to the foot and ankle region.     

Modified mini-open technique with skin transillumination for decompression fasciotomy in the treatment of chronic exertional compartment syndrome

Fasciotomy for chronic exertional compartment syndrome can be achieved by a variety of methods, many of which involve the blind passage of scissors or a fasciotome to release the affected compartments. We describe a modified open technique of fasciotomy which provides direct visualization of the fascia and the superficial peroneal nerve, using a single small incision. This technique requires a 4-cm longitudinal incision centered at the midpoint of the fibula. Subcutaneous tissues are dissected and a fascial incision is made. Langenbach retractors are used to lift the skin from either end of the wound. A light is used to transilluminate the skin proximal and then distal to the wound, and a fasciotome is used to extend the fasciotomies for both anterior and lateral compartments. Fasciotomy using this method was carried out on 20 cadaveric legs from 10 specimens. After decompression, a fulllength skin incision was made and the subcutaneous tissues were dissected to assess adequacy of release, anatomic course of the superficial peroneal nerve and complications. Fasciotomy was completed in twenty legs for both the anterior and lateral compartments. A complete fascial release was attained for both compartments in all legs. There were no retained fascial bands or nerve injuries. Fasciotomy using this method may be a safe and reliable method for compartment decompression, and may reduce iatrogenic risk to neurovascular and muscular structures in clinical practice.     

腓浅神经营养血管远端蒂皮瓣感觉重建的解剖学基础

目的 为腓浅神经营养血管远端蒂皮瓣感觉功能重建提供解剖学依据. 方法 在40侧常规防腐的成人下肢标本上,解剖观测小腿外侧部感觉神经的来源、走行及分布规律.1例标本摹拟手术设计. 结果 ①腓肠外侧皮神经在腓骨头尖平面上方约7 cm处自腓总神经发出,向下随腓总神经行一短程后穿出胭筋膜至小腿外面,沿途发出1～3个终支,分布于小腿后外侧Ⅰ、Ⅱ区的皮肤.②腓浅神经在腓骨头下1.9 cm处起于腓总神经,先于腓骨长肌与腓骨之间向下向前行,继降于腓骨长肌与腓骨短肌之间并分支供应两肌,其主干(纯感觉支)径直下行于腓骨短肌与小腿前肌间隔之间,在小腿外侧Ⅱ、Ⅲ区交界处穿出深筋膜至皮下组织中分为足背内侧、中间皮神经,分布于小腿外侧Ⅲ区和足背的皮肤.结论 通过腓肠外侧皮神经主干与受区感觉神经分支吻合,可重建腓浅神经营养血管远端蒂皮瓣的感觉功能.     

Multiple Locations of Nerve Compression: An Unusual Cause of Persistent Lower Limb Paresthesia

A paucity of appreciation exists that the “double crush” phenomenon can account for persistent leg symptoms even after spinal neural decompression surgery. We present an unusual case of multiple locations of nerve compression causing persistent lower limb paresthesia in a 40-year old male patient. The patient's lower limb paresthesia was persistent after an initial spinal surgery to treat spinal lateral recess stenosis thought to be responsible for the symptoms. It was later discovered that he had peroneal muscle herniations that had caused superficial peroneal nerve entrapments at 2 separate locations. The patient obtained much symptomatic relief after decompression of the peripheral nerve. The “double crush” phenomenon and multiple levels of nerve compression should be considered when evaluating lower limb neurogenic symptoms, especially after spinal nerve root surgery.     

Anatomical variations in the course of the superficial peroneal nerve

Eighty-five legs in forty-four cadavera were dissected to determine the course of the superficial peroneal nerve from its origin to its termination as dorsal cutaneous nerves of the foot. Particular attention was paid to the relationship of the nerve with the intermuscular septum between the anterior and lateral compartments of the leg. In sixty-two (73 per cent) of the legs, the nerve coursed within the lateral muscle compartment from its origin to its exit through the crural fascia. In twelve (14 per cent) of the legs, the nerve had a variable course in the lateral compartment, crossed into the anterior compartment, and passed through the fascia. In ten (12 per cent) of the legs, the nerve divided in two, with branches in both the anterior and the lateral compartment. In one leg, the nerve never lay deep to the peroneus longus but ran along the deep surface of the fascia before exiting distally. The nerve or its branches passed through the fascia three to eighteen centimeters proximal to the lateral malleolus.     

Superficial Peroneal Nerve to Deep Peroneal Nerve Transfer With Allograft Conduit for Neuroma in Continuity

The anterior approach to the ankle for surgery can result in injury to the superficial peroneal nerve, resulting in a painful neuroma and significant patient morbidity. A paucity of data is available evaluating the role of the superficial peroneal nerve to deep peroneal nerve transfer as a method of treatment of neuromas in continuity after ankle arthrodesis. We describe 11 patients who underwent nerve transfer with nerve allograft and conduit repair to treat recalcitrant painful neuromas after ankle arthrodesis. At a mean follow-up period of 31 months, the mean visual analog pain scale score had improved from 7.9 preoperatively to 2.45 postoperatively (p?<?.0001). These data suggest that nerve transfer with a nerve allograft can provide significant clinical improvement for painful neuromas of the peripheral nerves at the ankle.     

腓浅神经的行程与腓骨骨折的手术入路

目的：体表定位腓浅神经,为腓骨骨折提供安全合适的手术入路。方法：经4%甲醛溶液固定的成人尸体下肢标本66例,男42例,女24例;年龄37～88岁,平均69岁;左侧35例,右侧31例。对下肢的腓浅神经进行解剖,观察测量腓浅神经在小腿各部位的行走、分支情况及与体表标志的关系。结果：腓浅神经于腓骨颈的前外侧离开腓总神经,旁开腓骨头与外踝连线稍前方,下行于肌内、深筋膜下和浅筋膜内;主干12例在小腿以单支向下至足背,50例在穿出深筋膜于浅筋膜内分为2支,4例穿出肌肉后即分为2支。结论：为了避免损伤腓浅神经,腓骨中上段骨折宜从腓侧后肌间隙入路,腓骨下段骨折宜从腓侧前肌间隙入路。目的：体表定位腓浅神经,为腓骨骨折提供安全合适的手术入路。方法：经4%甲醛溶液固定的成人尸体下肢标本66例,男42例,女24例;年龄37～88岁,平均69岁;左侧35例,右侧31例。对下肢的腓浅神经进行解剖,观察测量腓浅神经在小腿各部位的行走、分支情况及与体表标志的关系。结果：腓浅神经于腓骨颈的前外侧离开腓总神经,旁开腓骨头与外踝连线稍前方,下行于肌内、深筋膜下和浅筋膜内;主干12例在小腿以单支向下至足背,50例在穿出深筋膜于浅筋膜内分为2支,4例穿出肌肉后即分为2支。结论：为了避免损伤腓浅神经,腓骨中上段骨折宜从腓侧后肌间隙入路,腓骨下段骨折宜从腓侧前肌间隙入路。     

Surgical anatomy for subfascial endoscopic perforating vein surgery of laterally located perforating veins

OBJECTIVES: Endoscopic ligation of perforating veins is useful in treatment of perforating vein incompetence. Over the last few years the topic of interest has been the medial side of the lower leg; however, laterally located venous ulcers (10% of all) are of equal importance. Our poor results with lateral subfascial endoscopic perforating vein surgery (SEPS) procedures led us to study the anatomy of the perforating veins in the lateral leg. The presence of persistent insufficient perforating veins in our patients suggests that our procedure failed because of misinterpreted perforator anatomy. METHODS AND RESULTS: Anatomic dissection was performed in 16 cadavers in two stages, subcutaneously and subfascially. Perforating veins were classified relative to the short saphenous vein and intermuscular septa, with coordinates. Three hundred fifty-one perforating veins were found, for an average of 21.9 perforating veins per leg. The results showed that there is alignment of the perforating veins according to the septa between the anterior and peroneal compartment and between the peroneal compartment and the superficial dorsal compartment. Most of the perforating veins did not correlate with the short saphenous vein. CONCLUSION: Poor clinical results of lateral SEPS procedures might be improved after adjustment of the procedure for new anatomic information, which shows alignment of perforating veins along the intermuscular septa, obligating full septa dissection on the lateral side.     

Anatomical Course of the Superficial Branch of the Radial Nerve and Clinical Significance for Surgical Approaches in the Distal Forearm

Abstract 10 embalmed cadaver forearms and wrists were dissected to determine the anatomical course of the superficial branch of the radial nerve in the distal forearm. The superficial radial nerve bifurcated in two branches at a mean of 54,7 mm proximal to the radial styloid. From the styloid process of the radius, the mean distance to the closest dorsal branch of the superficial radial nerve was 3,5 mm and the mean distance to the closest volar branch was 9,8 mm. The mean distance between the closest branch of the superficial radial nerve and Lister?s tubercle was 16,4 mm. The crossing point between the nerve and the cephalic vein was located at a mean of 54,3 mm proximal to the styloid process. At the level of styloid process the mean distance between the closest dorsal branch of the superficial radial nerve and the first dorsal compartment was 15,2 mm and between the closest volar branch and the first dorsal compartment 4,4 mm. Detailed knowledge of anatomic characteristics of the superficial branch of the radial nerve may help prevent injury during operations and treat traumatic lesions of the nerve. Because of great variations in the course of the superficial radial nerve we could not define an absolute safe zone for surgical procedures on the distal forearm. Iatrogenic lesions of the superficial radial nerve are described complications of percutaneous procedures. Therefore open surgical approaches are recommended. Daniela Klitscher and Lars Peter Müller contributed equally to this work.     

Experimental evaluation of the effect of raised pressure in a single compartment in the lower leg on neighbouring compartments using fresh above knee amputated legs-a study of interstitial pressures with two case reports

STUDY DESIGN: Experimental evaluation of intracompartmental pressures in a fresh above knee amputated human leg. OBJECTIVES: To determine what effect raised pressure in one compartment of the lower leg had upon its neighbour. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: There has been no previous reports of isolated compartment pathology, following low velocity trauma, causing a compartment syndrome in all four compartments of the lower leg. METHODS: Immediately after leg amputation, the intracompartmental pressure in the deep posterior compartment was artificially raised to 100 mmHg with infused 0.9% sodium chloride solution. The resultant pressure changes in remaining compartments were recorded over 30 min. RESULTS: Five legs were evaluated. After 30 min, the mean maximum intracompartmental pressure increase found in the superficial posterior, anterior and peroneal compartments was 78.4 mmHg (range 65-94 mmHg), 25.2 mmHg (range 14-31 mmHg) and 24.8 mmHg (range 15-31 mmHg), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This experimental data and case reports show that a compartment in which there is raised pressure may exert external pressure on a neighbouring compartment that can result in physiological changes to induce a compartment syndrome within that neighbour. The importance of assessing all compartments within a limb segment, even when associated with low velocity trauma, remains paramount.     

Anatomy of the posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve: practical information for the surgeon operating on the lateral aspect of the elbow

PURPOSE: To investigate the anatomic relationships of the posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve (PABCN) to anatomic landmarks on the lateral side of the elbow. METHODS: The PABCN was explored in 30 cadaveric upper extremities. Distances were noted from easily identifiable structures including the lateral epicondyle, the lateral intermuscular septum, and the radial nerve. RESULTS: The path of the PABCN follows the spiral groove initially, diverging as the radial nerve pierces the lateral intermuscular septum. The PABCN emerges from the posterior compartment through a hiatus in the deep fascia at a mean of 6.6 cm proximal to the lateral epicondyle and passes a mean of 2.1 cm anterior to the lateral epicondyle. CONCLUSIONS: The anatomic relationships determined in this study should enable the surgeon to avoid injuring the PABCN when performing surgery in the lateral elbow region.     

腓总神经嵌压综合征

报告腓总神经嵌压综合征９例，用保守疗法治疗３例，手术治疗６例，获满意疗效。该症的发生与腓总神经在窝至腓骨颈的解剖特点密切相关。主要病因为膝关节急剧屈曲下蹲位劳动使腓总神经反复损伤和局部赘生物压迫。临床表现为胫前肌、腓骨长肌、长伸肌、趾长伸肌等肌力减退或麻痹，小腿外侧及足背皮肤麻木或感觉缺失。电生理检查对诊断有一定价值。早期可保守治疗，３个月无效者，即应手术探查。局部赘生物嵌压者，应将其切除，进行彻底的神经松解术。     

Ankle and knee position as a factor modifying intracompartmental pressure in the human leg

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of position of the knee and ankle on intracompartmental pressures in the leg. Slit catheters were introduced bilaterally into all four muscle compartments of the lower extremities of six healthy volunteers. Intracompartmental pressures were monitored with the catheters while the ankle joint was passively held in full dorsiflexion, full plantar flexion, or neutral with the knee flexed 90 or 10 degrees or fully extended. Statistical analysis revealed that intracompartmental pressure increased significantly in all four compartments when the ankle was passively dorsiflexed. Pressure in the superficial posterior and lateral compartments was dependent on knee position and in the deep posterior and anterior compartments it was independent of knee position. In addition, pressure in the deep posterior compartment decreased significantly when the ankle was placed in full plantar flexion, and that finding was independent of knee position. Anterior compartment pressure was not significantly elevated by full passive plantar flexion of the ankle.     

The radial nerve in the brachium: an anatomic study in human cadavers

PURPOSE: To explore the course of the radial nerve in the brachium and to identify practical anatomic landmarks that can be used to avoid iatrogenic injury during humerus fracture fixation. METHODS: Data were collected from 27 adult cadaveric specimens, including 18 embalmed cadavers and 9 fresh-frozen limbs. Measurements were taken using osseous landmarks to define the relationship of the radial nerve and the posterior and lateral humerus. The extremities were studied further to determine the association of the radial nerve and anatomic landmarks on both longitudinal and cross-sectioned specimens. RESULTS: A 6.3 cm +/- 1.7 segment of radial nerve was found to be in direct contact with the posterior humerus from 17.1 cm +/- 1.6 to 10.9 cm +/- 1.5 proximal to the central aspect of the lateral epicondyle, centered within 0.1 cm +/- 0.2 of the level of the most distal aspect of the deltoid tuberosity. The radial nerve lay in direct contact with the periosteum in all specimens, without evidence of a structural groove in the humerus in any specimen. On entering the anterior compartment, the radial nerve had very little mobility as it was interposed between the obliquely oriented lateral intermuscular septum and the lateral aspect of the humerus. As it extended distally, the nerve coursed anterior to the humerus and became protected by brachialis muscle at the level of the proximal aspect of the lateral metaphyseal flare. CONCLUSIONS: The radial nerve is at risk of injury with fractures of the humerus and with subsequent operative fixation in 2 areas. The first is along the posterior midshaft region for a distance of 6.3 cm +/- 1.7 centered at the distal aspect of the deltoid tuberosity. The second is along the lateral aspect of the humerus in its distal third from 10.9 cm +/- 1.5 proximal to the lateral epicondyle to the level of the proximal aspect of the metaphyseal flare. The deltoid tuberosity is a consistent and practical anatomic landmark that can be used to determine the level of the radial nerve along the posterior aspect of the humerus during operative fixation from an anterior approach.     

桡神经浅支的功能解剖学观察

目的 对桡神经浅支进行功能解剖学观察,为桡神经浅支移植修复神经缺损提供解剖学依据.方法 取成人前臂防腐标本30侧,测量下列数据:桡神经浅段长,桡神经浅支深段长,桡神经浅支不同部位的横径以及桡神经浅支分支处与前臂外侧皮神经、正中神经之间的垂直距离.用8侧新鲜肢体的前臂神经作冰冻切片,进行HE染色,在显微镜下计数其内各自的...     

Compartment Syndrome of the Lower Leg and Foot

Compartment syndrome of the lower leg or foot, a severe complication with a low incidence, is mostly caused by high-energy deceleration trauma. The diagnosis is based on clinical examination and intracompartmental pressure measurement. The most sensitive clinical symptom of compartment syndrome is severe pain. Clinical findings must be documented carefully. A fasciotomy should be performed when the difference between compartment pressure and diastolic blood pressure is less than 30 mm Hg or when clinical symptoms are obvious. Once the diagnosis is made, immediate fasciotomy of all compartments is required. Fasciotomy of the lower leg can be performed either by one lateral incision or by medial and lateral incisions. The compartment syndrome of the foot requires thorough examination of all compartments with special focus on the calcaneal compartment. Depending on the injury, clinical examination, and compartment pressure, fasciotomy is recommended via a dorsal and/or medial plantar approach. Surgical management does not eliminate the risk of developing nerve and muscle dysfunction. When left untreated, poor outcomes with contractures, toe deformities, paralysis, and sensory neuropathy can be expected. In severe cases, amputation may be necessary.     

Single incision,minimally invasive fasciotomy of the anterior and lateral leg compartments with decompression of the superficial peroneal nerve

BackgroundThere is a considerable overlap of symptoms between chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) of the anterior and lateral compartments of the lower leg and entrapment neuropathy of the superficial peroneal nerve (SPN). We describe a minimally invasive, single incision surgical technique for release of both the compartments and the SPN in the same setting. The operative technique involves a minimal anterolateral approach at the level where the SPN pierces the subcutaneous fascia.MethodsNineteen patients were operated with the method and 24 anterolateral compartments (5 cases with bilateral CECS) were released. Anterior and lateral, proximal and distal fasciotomies were performed sequentially with the use of a specific instrument designed for carpal tunnel release (KnifeLight®, Stryker). This is a modification of a fasciotome with an intergrated light source which allows for transillumination of the subcutaneous tissues. The SPN and its main branches with their anatomical variations were explored and decompressed at the same setting.ResultsPatients who met the inclusion criteria were reviewed at one year postoperatively with a Numeric Analog Pain Scale (NAS) and the Linkert satisfaction scale. There were 5 men and 10 women, aged 35.7 (21–60) years. The NAS scores improved by a mean 6 points (p < 0.0001) postoperatively and 86.6% (13/15) of the patients were either satisfied or very satisfied with the operation. There were no intraoperative complications. There were two patients with SPN neuropathy symptoms postoperatively, one of whom required revision surgery. One patient had recurrence of less intense symptoms in the first postoperative year with no need for reoperation.ConclusionsThe simultaneous release of the anterolateral compartment of the leg and decompression of the SPN with the described technique was safe and effective. It combined the advantages of a single, minimally invasive approach with the subcutaneous transillumination, and had a high patient satisfaction and a low recurrence rate.Level of evidenceRetrospective case series, Level IV.