Pharmacokinetic consequences of pegylation

Pegylation, generally described as the molecular attachment of polyethylene glycols (PEGs) with different molecular weights to active drug molecules or surface treatment of drug-bearing particles with PEGs, is one of the most promising and extensively studied strategies with the goal of improving the pharmacokinetic behavior of the therapeutic drugs. A variety of PEGs, both linear and branched, with different molecular weights have been exploited successfully for use in this procedure in the form of reactive PEG species. Both reversible and irreversible PEG-drug conjugates have been prepared with relative advantages/disadvantages. The main pharmacokinetic outcomes of pegylation are summarized as changes occurring in overall circulation life-span, tissue distribution pattern, and elimination pathway of the parent drug/particle. Based on these favorable pharmacokinetic consequences leading to desired pharmacodynamic outcomes, a variety of proteins/peptides as well as small molecule drugs have been pegylated and evaluated successfully. Also a number of corresponding products have been approved by the U.S. FDA for specific clinical indications and some others are underway. In this article, the chemistry, rationale, strategies, pharmacokinetic outcomes, and therapeutic possibilities of pegylated drugs are reviewed with pharmacokinetic aspects presented with more details.     

Effect of pegylation on pharmaceuticals

Protein and peptide drugs hold great promise as therapeutic agents. However, many are degraded by proteolytic enzymes, can be rapidly cleared by the kidneys, generate neutralizing antibodies and have a short circulating half-life. Pegylation, the process by which polyethylene glycol chains are attached to protein and peptide drugs, can overcome these and other shortcomings. By increasing the molecular mass of proteins and peptides and shielding them from proteolytic enzymes, pegylation improves pharmacokinetics. This article will review how PEGylation can result in drugs that are often more effective and safer, and which show improved patient convenience and compliance.     

Stabilization of recombinant interferon-alpha by pegylation for encapsulation in PLGA microspheres

Interferon-alpha (IFN) was pegylated and encapsulated in biodegradable microspheres to achieve a long-acting formulation. IFN was pegylated with methoxy-polyethylene glycol (mPEG, MW 2000 or 5000). The conjugation procedures were optimized in terms of concentration of the reactants and the pH condition of the medium. The conjugates (IFN-mPEG(2000) and IFN-mPEG(5000)) were characterized using SDS-PAGE, size-exclusion-HPLC (SE-HPLC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectroscopy. The optimized IFN-mPEG conjugates consisted of mono- and multi-pegylated derivatives along with a small amount of native IFN (相似文献   

新型聚乙二醇化葡激酶的表达、纯化及功能鉴定研究

目的通过对葡激酶(SAK)基因序列进行定点突变、表达、纯化与进行聚乙二醇修饰以获得较高纯度的聚乙二醇化葡激酶(peg-SAK-cys),并对其溶栓活性与免疫原性初步进行验证。方法根据SAK蛋白晶体结构及抗原位点选择突变位点,设计引物将所选的氨基酸突变为半胱氨酸。将突变质粒通过化学转化进入BL21(DE3)感受态,并利用经典原核表达技术,在大肠杆菌中表达突变葡激酶(SAK-cys)。利用镍离子交换柱、分子筛等方法分离纯化目的蛋白。用纤维蛋白平板溶圈法和血栓弹力图初步对其生物活性进行验证。以酶联免疫吸附(ELISA)法评价peg-SAK-cys的免疫原性。结果成功获得了SAK-cys质粒,表达、纯化了突变蛋白,并进行聚乙二醇修饰获得了peg-SAK-cys,分离纯化后纯度在总蛋白质量的90%以上。计算其溶圈实验结果,活性为8.2×10~4IU·mg~(-1);血栓弹力图实验结果提示其具有较高的溶栓活性;免疫原性测定结果提示peg-SAK-cys免疫原性低于野生型SAK(P=0.000 2)。结论通过位点特异性特变与聚乙二醇修饰技术的联合运用可以成功改造出有较低免疫原性的活性SAK。     

抗肿瘤转移多聚β肽聚乙二醇化的研究

目的:研究抗肿瘤转移多聚β肽的聚乙二醇(PEG)化的方法及其作用。方法:采用甲氧基聚乙二醇丙醛(mPEGALD5000)修饰多聚β肽;采用电泳和成像分析系统检测修饰率。以粘附实验检测生物活性。结果:(1)二聚β肽(β2)的修饰率为66.7%,三聚β肽(β3)为52.7%。(2)最佳反应条件为:pH值为5,多聚β肽和mPEGALD5000的摩尔之比为1∶10,反应温度为4℃,反应时间为24h。(3)修饰后产物在4℃下可稳定放置50d。(4)修饰后产物水溶解度增加。(5)β2,β2-PEG,β3和β3-PEG对SMMC-7721和HCCLM6细胞与纤连蛋白(FN)粘附均具有显著的抑制作用(P<0.01),而且PEG修饰后作用显著增强(P<0.05或P<0.01)。结论:采用mPEGALD5000能有效地将多聚β肽PEG化。多聚β肽和PEG修饰物对肿瘤细胞与FN的粘附具有特异的抑制作用,且PEG修饰后作用增强。     

Enzymatic hydrolysis of haloperidol decanoate and its inhibition by proteins

When [14C]haloperidol decanoate, a long-acting neuroleptic and an ester of haloperidol and decanoic acid, was incubated in human whole blood and plasma and in rat plasma and homogenates of rat brain, lung, liver, kidney, pancreas and muscle, no hydrolysis of the ester was seen. Although the decanoate was hydrolyzed by partially purified carboxylesterase, addition of rat plasma or liver homogenate to the enzymic reaction mixture resulted in marked inhibition of hydrolysis, whereas addition of the defatted residues of plasma or liver produced only partial inhibition. The enzymic hydrolysis was inhibited also by beta-lipoprotein and albumin, depending on their concentrations. The assumption that interaction between haloperidol decanoate and protein resulted in inhibition of the hydrolytic reaction mediated by the enzyme was validated by kinetic models and experimental data. The kinetics were apparently competitive. Based on the kinetic analysis, the interaction between the decanoate and albumin or beta-lipoprotein was investigated by measuring their equilibrium constants and extent of protein binding. Haloperidol decanoate appeared to interact with several proteins; this was exemplified by other measures of protein binding, an increasing effect of proteins on the solubility, and the partition ratio of the ester. The interaction between haloperidol decanoate and proteins caused marked stabilization of this ester against enzymatic hydrolysis and, thereby, influenced its metabolism.     

A site-specific controlled-release system for metformin

Oral absorption of the antihyperglycaemic agent metformin hydrochloride (MF-HCl) is confined to the upper part of the intestine, therefore rational controlled-release formulations of this drug should ensure a complete release during transit from stomach to jejunum. The aim of this study was the preparation of a system able to sustain release of high MF-HCl doses in compliance with the above requirement. Matrices (6 mm diameter; 50 mg weight) comprising varying drug-Precirol ATO 5 ratios were prepared by compression. The matrix containing 70% drug was coated on one face with Eudragit L100-55. Drug release to simulated gastric (SGF), jejunal (SJF) and ileal (SIF) fluids in sequence was studied using a modified USP rotating basket method. Release depended on drug load whereas it was independent of dissolution medium pH and hydrodynamics. Release kinetics were of radical t type and were determined by drug diffusion in aqueous pores created in the matrix by drug dissolution. An equation correlating rate-determining factors was developed, whereby the release pattern could be optimized. The half-coated matrix started release in SGF and completed it in SJF. The half-coated matrix, synchronizing drug release and matrix transit across the small intestine, may improve drug bioavailability and reduce side effects.     

Reversible pegylation of insulin facilitates its prolonged action in vivo.

We attempted to engineer a novel long-acting insulin based on the following properties: (i) action as a prodrug to preclude supraphysiological concentrations shortly after injection; (ii) maintenance of low-circulating level of biologically active insulin for prolonged period; and (iii) high solubility in aqueous solution. A spontaneously hydrolyzable prodrug was thus designed and prepared by conjugating insulin through its amino side chains to a 40kDa polyethylene glycol containing sulfhydryl moiety (PEG(40)-SH), employing recently developed hetero-bifunctional spacer 9-hydroxymethyl-7(amino-3-maleimidopropionate)-fluorene-N-hydroxysucinimide (MAL-Fmoc-0Su). A conjugate trapped in the circulatory system and capable of releasing insulin by spontaneous chemical hydrolysis has been created. PEG(40)-Fmoc-insulin is a water-soluble, reactivatable prodrug with low biological activity. Upon incubation at physiological conditions, the covalently linked insulin undergoes spontaneous hydrolysis at a slow rate and in a linear fashion, releasing the nonmodified immunologically and biologically active insulin with a t(1/2) value of 30h. A single subcutaneous administration of PEG(40)-Fmoc-insulin to healthy and diabetic rodents facilitates prolonged glucose-lowering effects 4- to 7-fold greater than similar doses of the native hormone. The beneficial pharmacological features endowed by PEGylation are thus preserved. In contrast, nonreversible, "conventional" pegylation of insulin led to inactivation of the hormone.     

Emerging site-specific bioconjugation strategies for radioimmunotracer development

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Radioimmunotracers are a promising class of companion diagnostics for precision medicine. They are composed of an antibody-based targeting agent and a radiolabeled imaging probe. Together with the tendency towards the use of small antibody-derived fragments, the employed conjugation method is gaining increasing attention. Conventional bioconjugation methods result in heterogeneous tracer populations of which the single elements can differ in immunoreactivity, pharmacokinetic behavior and stability. Site-specific conjugation strategies try to overcome these shortcomings and facilitate radioimmunotracer delivery, characterization and manufacturing.

Areas covered: An overview is provided of site-specific conjugation strategies for use in radioimmunotracer development. Currently applied strategies are discussed, together with other emerging site-specific conjugation methods that are applicable to diabodies, single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) and camelid single-domain antibody-fragments (sdAbs or nanobodies).

Expert opinion: The ultimate goal of site-specific bioconjugation strategies is to allow precise control over the conjugation site, to result in homogenous tracer populations, and to be versatile in use with different imaging probes. Chemoenzymatic methods appear to be promising in this respect.     

Critical parameters in the pegylation of gold nanoshells for biomedical applications: An in vitro macrophage study

Pegylation of gold nanoshells provides an effective means to reduce their reticuloendothelial system (RES) clearance in body. In this study, we perform a parametric investigation on the factors that would affect the macrophage uptake of gold nanoshells with the aim to optimize their pegylation and minimize their macrophage uptake. We synthesized and pegylated the gold nanoshells using methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-thiol and employed an in vitro macrophage assay to examine the effect of surface density of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), chain length of the PEG, and size of the gold nanoshells on their macrophage uptake. We have shown that a saturated surface density would minimize macrophage uptake, which could be obtained by experimental titration-based Ellman’s reagent. Our results suggest that the chain length of PEG and size of gold nanoshells influence the surface density of PEG. We have also shown that PEG with molecular weight of around 2000 Da and a size range larger than 186 nm would be appropriate for facilitating a high surface density. Our in vitro macrophage system thus provides a good model to accurately predict the RES response to different pegylation parameters.     

人甲状旁腺素(1-34)的合成与聚乙二醇化修饰

目的合成人甲状旁腺素(1 34) [hPTH(1-34) ]并进行聚乙二醇化修饰。方法应用固相多肽合成方法合成并经高效液相色谱纯化得hPTH(1-34) ,Cys-hPTH(1- 34)和hPTH(1-34)-Cys-NH2 。Cys hPTH(1-34)和hPTH(1-34)-Cys-NH2 在水溶液(pH 7～8)中分别与平均相对分子质量为5 0 0 0的单甲氧基马来酰亚胺基聚乙二醇(mPEG50 0 0 MAL)反应,经高效液相色谱纯化得Cys(mPEG50 0 0 MAL)- hPTH(1-34)和hPTH(1-34)-Cys(mPEG50 0 0- MAL) -NH2 。结果hPTH(1-34) ,Cys(mPEG50 0 0 MAL) hPTH(1 34)和hPTH(1 34) Cys(mPEG50 0 0 MAL) NH2 的质谱和氨基酸组成分析结果均与理论值一致。hPTH(1-34) -Cys(mPEG50 0 0-MAL) NH2 保持了较好的体外活性,Cys(mPEG50 0 0- MAL) hPTH(1-34)保持了较好的体内活性。结论采用一种简便的方法成功实现了对hPTH(1-34)的N端或C端的聚乙二醇化修饰     

Assembled modules technology for site-specific prolonged delivery of norfloxacin

The aim of this research was to design and study norfloxacin (NFX) release in floating conditions from compressed hydrophilic matrices of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) or poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO). Module assembling technology for drug delivery system manufacturing was used. Two differently cylindrical base curved matrix/modules, identified as female and male, were assembled in void configuration by friction interlocking their concave bases obtaining a floating release system. Drug release and floatation behavior of this assembly was investigated. Due to the higher surface area exposed to the release medium, faster release was observed for individual modules compared to their assembled configuration, independently on the polymer used and concentration. The release curves analyzed using the Korsmeyer exponential equation and Peppas & Sahlin binomial equation showed that the drug release was controlled both by drug diffusion and polymer relaxation or erosion mechanisms. However, convective transport was predominant with PEO and at low content of polymers. NFX release from PEO polymeric matrix was more erosion dependent than HPMC. The assembled systems were able to float in vitro for up to 240min, indicating that this drug delivery system of norfloxacin could provide gastro-retentive site-specific release for increasing norfloxacin bioavailability.     

Stimuli-sensitive drug delivery systems for site-specific antibiotic release

Site-specific delivery of antibiotics has always been a high-priority area in pharmaceutical research. Conventionally used antibiotics suffer several limitations, such as low accumulation and penetration in diseased cells/tissues, limited bioavailability of drugs, drug resistance, and off-target toxicity. To overcome these limitations, several strategies have been exploited for delivering antibiotics to the site of infection, such as the use of stimuli-responsive antibiotic delivery systems, which can release antibiotics in a controlled and timely fashion. These stimuli can either be exogenous (light, magnetism, ultrasound, and electrical) or endogenous (pH, redox reactions, and enzymatic). In this review, we present a summary of recent developments in the field of stimuli-based targeted drug delivery systems for the site-specific release of antibiotics.     

A rapid extraction procedure of human hair proteins and identification of phosphorylated species

We developed a rapid and convenient extraction procedure of human hair proteins to examine their biochemical properties in detail. This procedure is based upon the fact that the combination of thiourea and urea in the presence of a reductant can effectively remove proteins from the cortex part of human hair. The extracted fraction mainly consisted of hard alpha-keratins with molecular masses of 40-60 kDa, matrix proteins with 12-18kDa, and minor components with 110-115kDa and 125-135kDa on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The protein phosphorylation in human hair was investigated by immunoblotting with antibodies against phosphoserine, phosphothreonine and phosphotyrosine. We found serine phosphorylation in alpha-keratins and matrix proteins and threonine phosphorylation in alpha-keratins. The extraction was also found to be effective when wool, chicken feathers, rat hair and human nails were used as starting materials.     

长效胸腺五肽的合成

目的提高长效胸腺五肽(mPEG(10kD)-TP5)——定位单链聚乙二醇化修饰的胸腺五肽的合成产率。方法选用Fmoc-Tyr(tBu)-Wang树脂和Fmoc/t-Butyl策略完成所有氨基酸的缩合,三氟乙酸对Wang树脂、侧链切割脱除。在碱性条件下,单甲氧基聚乙二醇修饰物(mPEG(10kD)-SPA)定点连接到赖氨酸的侧链氨基(ε-NH2)上。中间产物经钯碳催化氢化,得到mPEG(10kD)-TP5。结果目标产物总收率为20%,新合成路线比我们之前报道的方法产率提高了10倍。结论路线操作简单,易于纯化,产率较高。     

A site-specific polymeric drug carrier for renal disease treatment

A well-designed polymeric carrier for site-specific drug delivery in the treatment of renal disease has been reported recently. Approximately 80% of the water-soluble polymer poly(vinylpyrrolidone-co-dimethyl maleic anhydride selectively accumulated in the kidney of mice 24 h after intravenous injection. The detailed mechanism of such selective accumulation is not clear but an energy-dependent process, other than endocytosis, might be involved in the uptake of the polymer. This study is the first to report active targeting using a synthetic polymeric drug carrier.     

pH-sensitive polymeric physical-mixture for possible site-specific delivery of ibuprofen.

Delivery of drugs to the large bowel has been extensively investigated during the last decade. The aim of this work was to study polymethacrylic acid-co-methylmethacrylate substituted with fatty acids (lauric, myristic, palmitic and stearic) at 20% substitution degree (PMA-LAUR20, PMA-MIR20, PMA-PALM20 and PMA-STEA20) or 40% substitution degree (PMA-LAUR40, PMA-MIR40, PMA-PALM40 and PMA-STEA40) for preparing a pH-sensitive physical mixture for site-specific delivery of ibuprofen chosen as a model drug. The preparation and characterization of the substituted polymers were described. In vitro release studies were conducted at different pH levels (3 h at pH 2.0, 2 h at pH 5.5, 4 h at pH 7.4 and until 24 h at pH 7.0) and phase-solubility diagrams of ibuprofen with the different substituted polymers were obtained at pH 7.0 to obtain information on the influence of amphiphilic polymers in increasing drug solubility and drug availability in the colon.     

Gastroresistant microcapsules: new approaches for site-specific delivery of ketoprofen

Ketoprofen is a potent non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that has been widely used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other related conditions. However, it carries the risk of undesirable systemic side effects and gastrointestinal irritation at the usual dose of oral administration. The aim of this study was to prepare and evaluate gastroresistant microcapsules containing ketoprofen. Microcapsules were obtained by a spray-drying process starting from an O/A emulsion in the presence of different pH-dependent materials (Eudragit^® L100, Eudragit^® S100, and stearic acid) dissolved in the external phase. The influence of formulation factors (oily phase employed for drug solubilization, type of coating) on the morphology, particle size distribution, drug loading capacity, in-vitro release, and ex-vivo permeation characteristics were investigated. Drug loading capacity was very high for all the microcapsules prepared. Formulation factors did not significatively influence the mean particle size, but modified microcapsule in-vitro and ex-vivo behavior.