PPARs配体对巨噬细胞、泡沫细胞细胞外基质金属蛋白酶诱导因子表达的影响

目的：观察PPAR α、γ配体对巨噬细胞、泡沫细胞细胞外基质金属蛋白酶诱导因子(EMMPRIN)表达的影响。方法：体外诱导THP-1单核细胞转化为巨噬细胞、泡沫细胞，分别加入PPAR α配体氯贝特（clofibrate）、PPARγ配体吡格列酮(pioglitazone)共同培养，应用Real-time RT-PCR和Western blotting测定巨噬细胞、泡沫细胞中EMMPRIN基因和蛋白表达，ELISA测定细胞培养上清液MMP-9浓度，Zymgraphy法测定MMP-9活性。结果：氯贝特和吡格列酮均能显著抑制巨噬细胞和泡沫细胞EMMPRIN的表达，此抑制作用与PPAR α、γ配体抑制MMP-9分泌及活性的趋势一致。结论：PPAR α、γ配体均可抑制巨噬细胞、泡沫细胞EMMPRIN的表达，下调EMMPRIN可能是PPARs配体抑制粥样斑块局部MMPs产生的机制之一。     

过氧化物酶体增生物激活物受体γ激活与基质金属蛋白酶2在兔动脉粥样硬化斑块形成中的作用

观察过氧化物酶体增生物激活物受体γ（PPARγ）激活与基质金属蛋白酶2（MMP-2）对高胆固醇饮食兔动脉粥样硬化（AS）斑块形成的影响,并初步阐明其可能的机制。     

吡格列酮对高脂血症大鼠主动脉结缔组织生长因子表达水平的影响

目的:观察吡格列酮对高脂血症大鼠主动脉结缔组织生长因子(CTGF)表达的影响。方法:将26只雄性SD大鼠按体重随机分成普通饲料对照组(9只)和高脂饲料组(17只),分笼饲养,12周后检测其空腹血脂水平,以确定高脂饲料组造模成功;再将成模大鼠随机分为模型组(8只)和吡格列酮组(9只)。第13周起予吡格列酮组大鼠吡格列酮(10mg/kg/天),余两组用等量生理盐水连续灌胃4周后,平行检测各组大鼠血脂水平,主动脉组织形态学(包括光镜、电镜),免疫组化检测主动脉CTGF表达,并用Image-ProPlus图像分析系统分析染色结果。结果:高脂饲料喂养12周后,大鼠总胆固醇(TC)、甘油三酯(TG)和低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(LDL-C)水平较对照组明显升高(P<0.01),造模成功。吡格列酮组给药4周后血清TC、TG水平较模型组明显降低(P<0.01),主动脉CTGF表达也显著下调(P<0.01)。光镜下可见吡格列酮组内皮细胞偶有脱落,内膜下少量泡沫细胞,平滑肌细胞轻度增生;电镜下可见吡格列酮组大鼠血管内皮层整齐,偶见线粒体水肿,中膜平滑肌细胞少见泡沫样变,均较模型组好转。结论:主动脉CTGF表达增加参与了高脂血症对大鼠血管内膜的损伤,吡格列酮干预能够降低主动脉CTGF表达,减轻主动脉内膜损伤,对动脉粥样硬化有保护作用。     

LOX-1在吡格列酮调节高脂血症大鼠主动脉凋亡蛋白表达中的作用

目的:观察吡格列酮对高脂血症大鼠主动脉血凝集素样氧化低密度脂蛋白受体-1(LOX-1)和凋亡蛋白Bax、Bcl-2表达的影响,探讨LOX-1在其中的变化和作用。方法:清洁级SD大鼠26只,随机分为正常组(n=9)、高脂饲料组(n=17),高脂饲料喂养12周后再随机分为高脂血症模型组(n=8)和吡格列酮组(n=9),分别给予生理盐水(正常组和模型组)和药物(吡格列酮组)干预4周后,常规方法检测各组血脂水平,免疫组织化学法检测各组主动脉LOX-1、Bax、Bcl-2蛋白表达,TUNEL染色法观察主动脉内膜细胞凋亡情况,并计算细胞凋亡指数(AI)。结果:高脂饲料喂养12周后,成功复制17只高脂血症模型大鼠。吡格列酮干预4周后,与模型组比较,吡格列酮组甘油三酯(TG)、胆固醇(TC)水平明显降低(P<0.01)。与正常组相比,模型组大鼠主动脉LOX-1、Bax蛋白表达明显增加(P<0.01),Bcl-2蛋白表达及Bcl-2/Bax比值明显降低(P<0.01);与模型组相比,吡格列酮组主动脉LOX-1、Bax蛋白表达明显降低(P<0.01),Bcl-2蛋白表达和Bcl-2/Bax比值明显升高(P<0.01),且吡格列酮组主动脉内膜AI亦较模型组显著降低(P<0.01)。结论:吡格列酮可改善高脂血症大鼠血脂水平,调节凋亡蛋白表达,减少主动脉内皮细胞凋亡,其作用可能与其下调LOX-1蛋白表达有关。     

细胞外基质金属蛋白酶诱导因子与尿激酶型纤溶酶原激活物在载脂蛋白E 敲除大鼠动脉粥样硬化斑块表达的意义及相关性*

目的：探究细胞外基质金属蛋白酶诱导因子（ EMMPRIN）与尿激酶型纤溶酶原激活物（ μPA）在载脂蛋 白E 基因（ ApoE）敲除大鼠动脉粥样硬化斑块表达意义及相关性。方法：选择ApoE 敲除大鼠,将其分为对照组 与高脂饮食组,对照组大鼠实施正常饮食喂养,高脂饮食组实施高脂饮食喂养,并分别于喂养的第6、10、14、 18 周处死部分大鼠,采用H-E 染色观测动脉粥样硬化斑块形态, 免疫印迹及RT-PCR 检测主动脉粥样硬化斑块内 EMMPRIN和μPA 的表达及其mRNA表达,并实施组间比较。结果：高脂饮食组大鼠动脉出现明显动脉粥样硬化 斑块,且随着时间的推进,逐渐加重,而对照组大鼠并未出现明显的动脉粥样硬化斑块;喂养第6、10、14、18 周时高脂饮食组大鼠主动脉内EMMPRIN和μPA 的表达及其mRNA表达均明显高于对照组;EMMPRIN与μPA 表 达呈正相关。结论： EMMPRIN与μPA 在动脉粥样斑块中的表达水平呈正相关关系,两者可能参与动脉粥样硬化 斑块的形成并发挥促进作用。     

吡格列酮对前脂肪细胞分化及GILZ蛋白表达的影响

目的:探讨吡格列酮在3T3-L1前脂肪细胞分化及糖皮质激素诱导亮氨酸拉链(GILZ)蛋白表达调节方面的作用。方法:形态观察3T3-L1细胞分化过程,不同浓度吡格列酮(1×10~(-4)mmol/L~1×10~(-2)mmol/L)处理细胞48 h,然后于分化的第2、4、6天用油红O染色测定细胞甘油三酯相对含量,实时荧光定量PCR法检测过氧化物增殖活化受体(PPAR)γ2和脂蛋白酶(LPL)的mRNA表达。不同浓度药物处理细胞48 h后,Western blot检测GILZ蛋白表达。结果:油红O法显示甘油三酯相对含量随药物处理浓度的增加而增加,与对照组比,1×10~(-3)mmol/L和1×10~(-2)mmol/L组甘油三酯含量显著性增加(P0.05)。实时荧光定量PCR检测显示PPARγ2、LPL的mRNA表达也是随着药物处理浓度的增加而增加。与对照组比,吡格列酮高于1×10~(-3)mmol/L浓度时,PPARγ2、LPL的mRNA表达显著性增加(P0.01)。Western blot显示GILZ蛋白表达随着药物处理浓度的增加而降低。结论:吡格列酮可下调GILZ表达,上调PPARγ2及下游LPL的表达。     

吡格列酮通过上调PPARγ降低创伤性脑损伤大鼠脑组织炎性细胞因子的水平

目的观察吡格列酮对创伤性脑损伤(TBI)大鼠过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ(PPARγ)、肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)、白细胞介素6(IL-6)mRNA的表达影响及量效关系。方法 72只SD雄性大鼠随机分为正常组、假手术组、对照组、(0.5、1.0、10.0)mg/kg吡咯列酮组,每组各12只。改良Feeney法制作TBI模型,假手术组只开孔不进行打击处理,治疗组按体质量分别给予(0.5、1.0、10.0)mg/kg吡咯列酮治疗,对照组和假手术组给等量安慰剂。致伤24、48 h后,采用反转录PCR检测脑损伤部位组织PPARγ、TNF-α、IL-6的mRNA水平。结果损伤24 h后,各吡格列酮组PPARγmRNA表达量显著上调,不同剂量吡咯列酮组间PPARγmRNA表达量差异显著,有剂量依赖性;损伤后治疗组TNF-αmRNA的表达量显著下调,24 h后,与0.5 mg/kg组相比,(1.0、10.0)mg/kg吡咯列酮组TNF-α、IL-6的mRNA水平降低。结论吡格列酮上调TBI大鼠PPARγmRNA、下调TNF-α和IL-6 mRNA表达,抑制炎症反应。     

血清基质金属蛋白酶活性与动脉粥样硬化斑块稳定性的实验观察

目的观察血清MMP-2、MMP-9在不同时期的兔动脉粥样硬化动物模型中的变化,研究其影响因素及与斑块稳定性的关系。方法将30只长耳白兔随机分为3组:普通饮食组(n=10),高脂饮食组(n=10),球囊损伤 高脂饮食组(n=10),3个月后以中国斑点蝰蛇毒和组胺触发使斑块破裂。其间监测血脂情况,并行血清MMP-2、MMP-9检测。动物处死后查找动脉硬化斑块行病理检测。结果普通饮食组实验中各检测项目均无明显差异。高脂饮食及球囊损伤 高脂饮食组一个月后血脂明显升高。药物触发后高脂饮食组血清MMP-9活性明显增加,球囊损伤 高脂饮食组血清MMP-2、MMP-9活性均明显增加。结论在兔动脉粥样硬化的动物模型中,斑块处于不稳定状态时血清MMP-9活性明显增加,而MMP-2的活性升高可能与内皮机械损伤有关。     

吡格列酮对高脂血症大鼠血清一氧化氮、髓过氧化物酶的影响

目的:观察吡格列酮改善血脂与氧化应激、炎症对内皮功能的影响。方法:清洁级SD大鼠26只,随机分为普通饲料组(对照组,n=9)和高脂饲料组(n=17);高脂饲料组喂饲高脂饲料12周后检测空腹血脂,造模成功后,分为模型组(n=8)和吡格列酮组(n=9);后者给予吡格列酮溶液(0.6mg/ml)连续灌胃4周,对照组和模型组给予等量蒸馏水灌胃4周。之后检测各组主动脉病理组织学、血脂、一氧化氮(NO)、髓过氧化物酶(MPO)水平变化。结果:高脂饲料喂养12周后,高脂饲养组甘油三酯(TG)、总胆固醇(TC)、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(LDL-C)较对照组明显升高(P<0.01),提示模型成功。给药4周后,吡格列酮组TG、TC明显下降(P<0.01);血清NO明显升高(P<0.01),血清MPO水平明显下降(P<0.01)。结论:血清NO和MPO可能介导高脂饮食之氧化应激所致血管内皮损伤。吡格列酮可在一定程度上保护血管内皮。     

心可舒与氟伐他汀抑制兔动脉粥样硬化黏附分子的表达及炎性反应

目的观察心可舒及氟伐他汀对兔动脉粥样硬化(AS)斑块血管细胞黏附分子(VCAM-1)的影响及其机制。方法将雄性新西兰大白兔随机分为对照组、高脂AS模型组、氟伐他汀组及心可舒组,每组9只。通过HE染色评估粥样斑块的程度。应用免疫组化检测巨噬细胞、基质金属蛋白酶9(MMP-9)和α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-SMA)的表达,蛋白免疫印迹法分析斑块VCAM-1的表达水平,并检测氧自由基SOD及MDA的含量。结果心可舒及氟伐他汀组VCAM-1的表达明显低于高脂组的水平(P0.01),巨噬细胞、MMP-9及α-SMA的水平亦明显低于高脂组(P0.01),SOD的含量明显升高(P0.01)。结论心可舒及氟伐他汀通过抗氧自由基及抗炎作用保护兔血管内皮及抗动脉粥样硬化。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

Class II HLA in Georgia Caucasus Tbilisi Georgians and their Mediterranean ancestry: The Usko Mediterranean languages

Georgia (or Sakartvelo in its own language) is a South Caucasus Mts. country with its easternmost part is enigmatically named Iberia, like the Iberian Peninsula, which may refer to rivers “Kura” and “Ebro” or their valleys respectively. Most of their inhabitants speak Georgian which is included within Dene-Caucasian group and Usko-Mediterranean subgroup of languages. The latter includes Basque, Berber, ancient Iberian-Tartessian, Etruscan, Hittite, Minoan Lineal A and others. In the present paper, HLA class II -DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles has been studied and extended haplotypes calculated. Most frequent haplotypes are also of Mediterranean origin (i. e.: (A*02-B*51)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01, (A*02-B*51)-DRB1*13:01-DQB1*06:03, or (A*24-B*35)-DRB1*01:01-DQB1*05:01) and DA genetic distances show that closest world populations to Georgians are Mediterraneans. Georgians also show common extended haplotypes ((A*02-B*51)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01, (A*02-B*13)-DRB1*07:01-DQB1*02:01 and (A*03-B*35)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01) with Svan people, a secluded population in North Georgia mountains. We can conclude that Georgians belong to a very old Mediterranean substratum according to both linguistics (Usko Mediterranean languages) and HLA genetics.     

HLA genes in Amerindians from Mexico San Vicente Tancuayalab Teenek/Huastecos

Huastecos or Teenek Amerindians are presently living at North East Mexico (San Luis Potosi State). They have probably one of the most ancient culture of Mexico and Central America together with Mayas and Olmec groups with which also show close relationships. Proximity to Atlantic Ocean/Mexican Gulf originated that Spaniards had very early contact with them at about 1519 CE or before. In the present paper we have aimed to study HLA gene profile which may be useful for HLA and disease epidemiology and transplant programs in Teeneks. HLA-DRB1*04:07, -DRB1*14:06 and -DRB1*04:11 have been found in high frequency like in other Amerindian groups. High frequency typical Amerindians HLA extended haplotypes have been found, such as A*02-B*35-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; A*68-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 and A*02-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; also new haplotypes have been described, like A*02-B*52-DRB1*04:11-DQB1*03:02, A*68-B*35-DRB1*14:02-DQB1*03:01 and A*68-B*40-DRB1*16:02-DQB1*03:01. Genetic proximity is observed not only to linguistically close Mayans, but also to Mazatecans, Mixtecans and Zapotecans, who speak an altogether different languages; it shows once more that genes and languages do not correlate. This population was greatly diminished after European contact between 1500 and 1600 years CE; in fact, North and South America First Inhabitants population was brought from 80 down to 8 million people because of diseases (i.e.: measles, smallpox or influenza), slavery and war.