重症心脏瓣膜病的外科治疗

目的总结重症心脏瓣膜病的外科治疗结果,探讨提高早期生存率的措施。方法自2000年6月至2005年7月,对78例重症心脏瓣膜病患者施行瓣膜替换术。其中单纯二尖瓣置换12例,二尖瓣置换 三尖瓣成形22例,单纯主动脉瓣置换8例,二尖瓣 主动脉瓣置换 三尖瓣成形35例,二尖瓣置换 冠状动脉旁路移植术1例。结果死亡6例,其中术后并发低心排血量5例,心室颤动治疗无效死亡1例,死亡率7.69%。随访53例,平均随访2.5年,死亡5例。结论对重症心脏瓣膜病患者,注重改善术前心功能,掌握手术时机,尽量保留瓣下组织,选择合适瓣膜,重视围手术期处理,可提高手术成功率。     

单纯二尖瓣置换术3416例疗效分析

目的探讨单纯二尖瓣置换术的近远期疗效。方法复习1978年12月至2003年12月期间施行单纯二尖瓣置换手术3416例的病例和随访资料,统计分析术后近、远期病死率、死亡原因、并发症以及影响疗效的高危因素。结果风湿性二尖瓣病变占91.80%,合并功能性三尖瓣关闭不全或器质性病变达50.32%,合并慢性疾病者为8.92%。手术死亡率为3.25%,主要死因是心力衰竭;总随访时间24735.83病人·年,20年累计生存率为(86.36±0.74)%;晚期病死率为0.84%病人·年,心力衰竭仍是主要死因。血栓栓塞为0.18%病人·年,与抗凝有关出血为0.68%病人·年;手术前心功能IV级、肾功能衰竭、严重感染和多脏器功能衰竭是显著影响手术死亡的高危因素。结论合理选择手术时机、重视三尖瓣关闭不全和心律失常的处理、积极防治风湿病复发有助于改善二尖瓣病变的手术预后。     

风湿性心瓣膜病伴心房颤动546例临床分析

目的总结风湿性心瓣膜病合并心房颤动的发病特点和外科治疗经验。方法回顾性分析1998年12月至2004年11月期间收治的546例风湿性心瓣膜病合并心房颤动患者的临床资料,其中行二尖瓣置换术383例,主动脉瓣置换术5例,二尖瓣和主动脉瓣双瓣膜置换术158例。在心脏不停跳下手术459例,常规体外循环心脏停搏下手术87例;术中同期行改良Cox迷宫型手术13例,左心房折叠术45例,三尖瓣成形术245例。结果全组患者均顺利完成手术,体外循环时间59～219min。术后早期死亡10例(1.83%,10/546),死于多器官功能衰竭和急性呼吸窘迫综合征。术后早期发生血色素尿11例,早期二次开胸探查止血7例,瓣周漏2例,均经相应的处理治愈。术后随访387例,随访时间1年,随访结果:窦性心律自动转为心房颤动17例,未接受迷宫手术由心房颤动转为窦性心律12例,13例接受迷宫手术患者术后心房颤动均转为窦性心律。远期死亡2例,分别死于出院后18个月和23个月。其余患者无严重的出血和血栓栓塞并发症发生。结论风湿性二尖瓣关闭不全较二尖瓣狭窄更易引发心房颤动,但发生左心房血栓的几率减小,浅低温心脏不停跳心瓣膜置换术结合双心房迷宫手术可作为治疗心瓣膜病合并心房颤动的一种有效手术方法。     

瓣膜病合并射血分数降低的心力衰竭患者术后左心室功能恢复的影响因素分析

目的分析瓣膜病合并射血分数降低的心力衰竭[heart failure with reduced ejection fraction,HFrEF;左心室射血分数(left ventricular ejection fraction,LVEF)40%]患者瓣膜手术后心功能恢复的影响因素。方法回顾性分析2011年1月至2018年6月于我院行手术治疗的LVEF40%的98例瓣膜病患者临床资料,其中男75例、女23例,年龄9～78(55.3±11.9)岁。结果全组患者共死亡15例,术后3个月内死亡4例,术后中远期死亡11例。术后91例患者随访6个月以上,随访时间10个月至8.6年。91例患者术后心功能分级(NYHA)均为Ⅰ～Ⅱ级,18例(19.8%)患者LVEF恢复10%以上,47例(51.6%)患者LVEF保持术前水平,26例(28.6%)患者LVEF降低。HFrEF瓣膜病患者术后LVEF易恢复的因素包括术前仍为窦性心律(P=0.038)、以主动脉瓣病变为主的瓣膜病(P=0.026)、术后早期即出现左心室舒张末期内径明显缩小(P=0.017)及术前肺动脉收缩压较高(P=0.018);术后LVEF可能出现降低的危险因素包括术前左心房较大(P=0.014)、术前左心室收缩末期内径较小(P=0.003)、术后心率较快不容易控制(P=0.019)。结论二尖瓣脱垂患者出现左心室内径明显增大时,应尽早手术;HFrEF的主动脉瓣病变患者应积极手术,预后较好;HFrEF瓣膜病患者若肺动脉收缩压较高,预后通常较好。     

34例老年心脏黏液瘤的临床表现及围术期处理

目的 提高老年患者心脏黏液瘤的临床诊断及围术期处理水平.方法 回顾性分析1998年6月至2008年6月收治心脏黏液瘤患者的临床资料,其中60岁以上老年患者34例,占39.08%,左心房黏液瘤27例,右心房黏液瘤7例,均在体外循环下行黏液瘤摘除术,同期行二尖瓣成形术3 例,三尖瓣成形术15例.结果 全组无手术死亡,无体、肺循环栓塞,术后临床症状消失,心功能明显改善;随访27例,随访率79%,随访时间1～9年,复发1例.结论 老年心脏黏液瘤患者临床表现缺乏特异性,超声心动图检查可明确诊断,及时手术及合理的围术期处理是提高疗效的关键.     

心脏瓣膜疾病合并冠心病10例手术治疗

目的:探讨心脏瓣膜疾病合并冠心病的手术治疗方法及围术期处理。方法:2000年8月～2004年8月,同期手术治疗冠心病合并心脏瓣膜病10例,其中二尖瓣病变7例,主动脉瓣病变2例,联合瓣膜病变1例,手术在中低温体外循环下进行,均行人工机械瓣膜置换。结果:其中1例因低心排死亡,其余病人心功能明显改善。结论:瓣膜疾病合并冠心病者,手术死亡率偏高,但若能纠正瓣膜功能,改善心肌缺血情况,并完善术中心肌保护,对提高此类疾病患者的生活质量有良好的效果。     

老年危重心瓣膜病的外科治疗与围术期处理

目的总结老年危重心瓣膜病患者的手术治疗和围术期处理经验。方法回顾性分析2008年6月至2010年6月中国医科大学附属第一医院37例60岁以上老年危重心瓣膜病患者手术治疗的临床资料,其中男21例,女16例;年龄60～79(67.3±6.9)岁。二尖瓣病变15例,主动脉瓣病变8例,主动脉瓣+二尖瓣病变14例;合并左心房血栓9例,三尖瓣反流11例。结果围术期死亡3例,其中死于术后肺部感染1例,多器官功能衰竭1例,脑梗死1例。术后发生并发症18例,包括呼吸道并发症、室性心律失常、低心排血量综合征和急性肾功能衰竭等,经相应的治疗治愈。随访26例,随访时间6～23个月,心功能分级(NYHA)Ⅰ级13例,Ⅱ级12例,Ⅲ级1例。结论完善的术中操作、加强围术期处理,可有效降低老年危重心瓣膜病患者术后并发症的发生和病死率。     

大左室心脏瓣膜病49例围术期治疗体会

目的总结大左室心脏瓣膜病患者围术期处理经验。方法大左室心脏瓣膜病患者49例,术前均行心脏超声检查明确心脏病变情况;按NYHA心功能分级标准对患者心功能进行分级。患者均在全麻低温体外循环下行手术治疗,手术方式主要有主动脉瓣置换术、二尖瓣置换术、主动脉瓣+二尖瓣置换术。部分患者同期行三尖瓣成形术、左房折叠术。结果术后早期死亡2例(4.08%),原因分别为低心排出量综合征(1例),室性心律失常(1例)。术后早期并发症主要有室性心律失常,低心排出量综合征,胸腔积液,心包积液,肺部感染,肾功能不全,出血。其余47例患者痊愈出院。结论大左室心脏瓣膜病患者病情重,手术风险大,术后并发症发生率及死亡率高。积极行术前准备,改进手术技术,注重心肌保护,术后加强管理,可改善手术效果。     

非缺血性心脏瓣膜疾病合并冠心病同期手术治疗的临床分析

目的 总结非缺血性心脏瓣膜疾病合并冠心病同期手术患者的临床特征和手术效果,以提高手术疗效. 方法 2000年1月至2007年6月同期手术治疗105例非缺血性心脏瓣膜疾病合并冠心病患者,年龄36～79岁(61.96±7.61岁),其中风湿性心瓣膜疾病59例,退行性二尖瓣病变24例,老年性钙化性主动脉瓣病变13例;其它主动脉瓣病变9例.术前行冠状动脉造影明确诊断98例,术中探查发现冠心病7例.全组均行冠状动脉旁路移植术,共移植血管216支(2.06支/例),同期行二尖瓣置换术36例,二尖瓣成形术15例,主动脉瓣置换术43例,双瓣膜置换术11例. 结果 术后住院死亡6例(5.7%,6/105).死于严重低心排血量3例,肾功能衰竭2例,术后心脏骤停并发多器官功能衰竭1例.术后随访93例,随访时间1个月至7年,失访6例.无晚期死亡患者.心功能分级(NYHA)Ⅰ级25例,Ⅱ级53例,Ⅲ级10例,Ⅳ级5例.1例患者活动后仍有心绞痛存在. 结论 非缺血性心脏瓣膜疾病合并冠心病患者绝大多数无典型的心绞痛症状,50岁以上的患者必须行冠状动脉造影检查,对有冠心病易患因素者,应积极作冠状动脉造影检查;冠心病所致的心肌缺血可明显加重心脏瓣膜疾病所引起的心肌损害,术中心肌保护尤为重要;正确评价术前左心功能低下的患者是选择手术治疗的难点,更是影响手术效果的关键因素.     

急性人工瓣膜功能障碍六例临床分析

目的 探讨急性人工瓣膜功能障碍的早期诊断及合理治疗措施. 方法 回顾性分析201 1年1月至2012年1月武汉亚洲心脏病医院6例急性人工瓣膜功能障碍患者的临床资料,其中男3例,女3例；年龄28～61岁.风湿性心脏瓣膜病5例,退行性心脏瓣膜病1例；行主动脉瓣置换术1例,二尖瓣置换术3例,二尖瓣、主动脉瓣双瓣膜置换术2例.心瓣膜置换术后2个月～8年8个月出现急性人工瓣膜功能障碍,6例患者入院后均在24 h内因心力衰竭表现难以纠正而行气管内插管+有创呼吸机治疗；4例患者于入院后24h内行急诊外科手术治疗,2例患者放弃手术治疗. 结果 人工瓣膜的主要病理改变为血栓形成、瓣膜赘生物形成、组织水肿、内膜增生和瓣叶活动度降低.经手术治疗的4例患者无围术期死亡,均痊愈出院；未行手术治疗的2例患者均于48 h内死于心力衰竭.随访4例,随访时间12～23个月,随访期间4例患者均酌情服用利尿剂、血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂、华法林等药物,术后3个月、6个月、1年复查心脏超声心动图提示人工瓣膜功能良好,术后1年患者心功能均恢复至Ⅰ～Ⅱ级. 结论 急诊床旁经胸超声心动图检查对急性人工瓣膜功能障碍的早期诊断有重要的价值；尽早行外科手术治疗是挽救该类患者生命最有效的手段.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.