X-ray computed tomographic study of the ethmoid and middle meatus. II. Radio-anatomy (axial incidence) and morphological variations

Chronic rhinosinusitis endoscopic surgery needs an accurate evaluation of diseases and paranasal sinus anatomic variations. High resolution CT by thin section (2 mm) allow this pre-operative assessment. An anatomical study of the ethmoid air cell system is always possible in axial plane. The bidimensional CT exploration (axial and coronal plane) displays the anatomic variations of ostiomeatal unit, that have been reported to predispose sinusitis. They are nasal septal deviation, pneumatization and paradoxical curvature of the middle turbinate, pneumatization of unciform process, Haller's cells, prominent agger nasi cell and ethmoid bulla. The endoscopic endonasal surgery landmarks, the individual morphologic variations, the topographic relations to the orbit and to the brain are also well shown by CT.     

Partial resection of the middle turbinate at functional endoscopic sinus surgery

The middle turbinate is often carefully preserved at Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery (FESS). However there is no clear understanding of its importance and its presence may prevent good access to the middle meatus to the detriment of the surgical result. In addition its bulk may cause symptoms of nasal obstruction and prevent paranasal sinus drainage. Adhesions and stenosis have been reported at the middle meatus following its preservation. We undertook a prospective study of 50 consecutive patients all of whom underwent resection of the anterior half of the middle turbinate at the time of Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery. The patients were asked to complete a symptom score sheet before and ten weeks after surgery. The parameters considered were nasal obstruction, nasal congestion, discharge, facial pain and headache. Non parametric analysis of the results indicated a significant improvement in all patient symptom scores and no postoperative complications were noted. We conclude that partial resection of the middle turbinate is a useful modification of accepted endoscopic sinus surgery techniques.     

Fungal ball in concha bullosa as incidentaloma: A case report and the review of the literature

Concha bullosa is an anatomic variant consisting in an enlargement and pneumatization of the middle nasal turbinate. A fungal ball (FB) localized in this structure is an extremely rare disease. This article describes the unusual case of a young patient with an asymptomatic fungal mass in the concha bullosa, incidentally discovered at computed tomography (CT) scan of the head, which was performed after trauma.     

The incidence of concha bullosa and its relationship to nasal septal deviation and paranasal sinus disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The incidence of middle turbinate pneumatization, or concha bullosa, has been well described in the literature. However, to our knowledge, no study has evaluated concha bullosa in relation to nasal septal deviation. We sought to analyze the incidence of concha bullosa and any correlation with nasal septal deviation and paranasal sinus disease. METHODS: Three neuroradiologists retrospectively reviewed findings of 1095 consecutive paranasal sinus CT studies conducted between 2001 and 2002. All examinations were performed for evaluation of a symptom referable to the sinonasal region. Paranasal sinus inflammatory disease was identified and graded as mild, moderate, or severe. Sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary, and frontal sinuses were each graded separately on both sides. If a concha bullosa was present, it was graded in size as small, moderate, or large. If bilateral concha were present, sizes were compared and when one was larger, it was identified as dominant. When nasal septal deviation was present, it was graded as mild, moderate, or severe. The direction of nasal septal deviation was identified as the face of the convex surface. RESULTS: There was a clear association between the presence of a unilateral concha, or a dominant concha (in the case of bilateral concha), and the presence of nasal septal deviation (P < .0001). Moreover, there was a significant relationship between the presence of concha bullosa and deviation of the nasal septal to the contralateral side (P < .0001). This inverse association was present regardless of the size of the concha bullosa or degree of septal deviation. In every case, there was some preservation of air channels between the dominant concha and the nasal septum. Seventy-three percent of patients with concha bullosa had paranasal sinus inflammatory disease; 78% of patients without concha bullosa also had some form of inflammatory disease. CONCLUSION: Concha bullosa is a common anatomic variant. There is a strong association between the presence of a concha bullosa and contralateral deviation of the nasal septum. Nasal septal deviation away from the dominant concha, with preserved adjacent air channels, suggests that the deviation is not a direct result of mass effect from the concha. No increased incidence of paranasal sinus disease exists in patients with concha bullosa.     

鼻内镜下诊治鼻中隔骨折

目的:探讨鼻窦内镜对鼻中隔骨折的诊治。方法:45患者就诊时均行鼻窦内镜检查、鼻骨侧位片和鼻窦CT检查。均在鼻窦内镜下行鼻骨骨折复位术和鼻中隔成形术。结果:1例患者术后鼻外形改善不明显外,其余均得到治愈。结论:鼻窦内镜检查并酌行CT扫描是确诊鼻中隔骨折的主要手段,鼻骨骨折整复术同时可行鼻中隔成形术。     

功能性鼻内窥镜鼻腔鼻窦手术27例临床观察

鼻内窥镜下的鼻腔鼻窦手术在彻底切除病变组织基础上尽可能不损伤鼻控及鼻窦的解剖结构，最大限度地保留鼻腔和鼻窦的基本功能。方法；采用功能性鼻内窥镜进行鼻腔，鼻窥手术２７例。结果；术后随访，１３例鼻息肉并鼻窦炎，５例慢性肥厚性鼻炎全部恢复正常通气功能。     

The Impact of Middle Turbinate Concha Bullosa on the Severity of Inferior Turbinate Hypertrophy in Patients with a Deviated Nasal Septum

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE:Inferior turbinate hypertrophy and concha bullosa often occur opposite the direction of nasal septal deviation. The objective of this retrospective study was to determine whether a concha bullosa impacts inferior turbinate hypertrophy in patients who have nasal septal deviation.MATERIALS AND METHODS:The electronic medical record was used to identify sinus CT scans exhibiting nasal septal deviation for 100 adult subjects without and 100 subjects with unilateral middle turbinate concha bullosa. Exclusion criteria included previous sinonasal surgery, tumor, sinusitis, septal perforation, and craniofacial trauma. Nasal septal deviation was characterized in the coronal plane by distance from the midline (severity) and height from the nasal floor. Measurement differences between sides for inferior turbinate width (overall and bone), medial mucosa, and distance to the lateral nasal wall were calculated as inferior turbinate hypertrophy indicators.RESULTS:The cohorts with and without concha bullosa were similarly matched for age, sex, and nasal septal deviation severity, though nasal septal deviation height was greater in the cohort with concha bullosa than in the cohort without concha bullosa (19.1 ± 4.3 mm versus 13.5 ± 4.1 mm, P < .001). Compensatory inferior turbinate hypertrophy was significantly greater in the cohort without concha bullosa than in the cohort with it as measured by side-to-side differences in turbinate overall width, bone width, and distance to the lateral nasal wall (P < .01), but not the medial mucosa. Multiple linear regression analyses found nasal septal deviation severity and height to be significant predictors of inferior turbinate hypertrophy with positive and negative relationships, respectively (P < .001).CONCLUSIONS:Inferior turbinate hypertrophy is directly proportional to nasal septal deviation severity and inversely proportional to nasal septal deviation height. The effect of a concha bullosa on inferior turbinate hypertrophy is primarily mediated through influence on septal morphology, because the nasal septal deviation apex tends to be positioned more superior from the nasal floor in these patients.

Nasal airway obstruction is a challenging problem that can arise from multiple etiologies, which include structural abnormalities such as nasal septal deformity and turbinate hypertrophy. Inferior turbinate hypertrophy (ITH) has received much attention in the literature in the debate over optimal surgical management of nasal obstruction.¹ Although the term “hypertrophy” is most accurately reserved for the overall enlargement of an organ because of increasing cell size, its use is widely accepted in the setting of turbinate enlargement secondary to greater thickness of soft-tissue and/or bone components.^2–5 Although limited normative data has been published on inferior turbinate size by using CT, ITH remains a clinical diagnosis.⁶ITH has been commonly described as occurring contralateral to the direction of nasal septal deviation (NSD) or, alternatively phrased, along the concave side of the septum.^2,3,7–14 Because of this association, it has been speculated that ITH is compensatory, to create physiologically favorable nasal airflow turbulence and to protect the mucosa from excessive drying and crusting with increased air flow. In other words, the inferior turbinate may have progressively enlarged to fill the void in the nasal cavity created by the shifted midline with the undesirable result of a smaller-than-expected cross-sectional area for air passage.² Using septoplasty to correct NSD without addressing the ITH may have the unintended consequence of worsening symptomatic nasal obstruction.⁷Concha bullosa is an anatomic variant of ethmoid air cell development in which pneumatization most commonly extends into the middle turbinate. This can be limited to the vertical lamella, extend into the bulbous portion, or extensively involve the vertical lamella and bulbous segment of the middle turbinate.¹⁵ If one allowed some outlier data, the prevalence is likely in the range of 21%–53%.^15–27 Some of the reported variability can be attributed to differences in the populations being evaluated, the type of evaluation (ie, CT versus surgery), and the definition of concha bullosa (ie, whether to include small lamellar types). Similar to ITH, a preponderance of published reports support a strong association between the presence of concha bullosa and NSD, in which the nasal septum typically bows toward the contralateral side and may increasingly do so when middle turbinate pneumatization is greatest.^{23,24,27–30} Moreover, in bilateral cases, the nasal septum is usually near midline when the conchae bullosa are balanced in size but usually deviates away from an asymmetrically enlarged dominant concha bullosa.When one controls for the shape and severity of a deviated nasal septum, it has yet to be determined whether a concha bullosa significantly influences the presence of ipsilateral ITH. Logically, an interaction may exist between the structures because the concha bullosa and ITH both commonly develop along the concave side of a deviated nasal septum within a secondarily widened nasal cavity. The objective of this study was to assess patients with NSD on CT in an attempt to identify whether the presence or absence of a concha bullosa influences ipsilateral ITH.     

Remarkable anatomic variations in paranasal sinus region and their clinical importance

With the advent of functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) and coronal computed tomography (CT) imaging, considerable attention has been directed toward paranasal region anatomy. Detailed knowledge of anatomic variations in paranasal sinus region is critical for surgeons performing endoscopic sinus surgery as well as for the radiologist involved in the preoperative work-up. To be in the known anatomical variants with some accompanying pathologies, directly influence the success of diagnostic and therapeutic management of paranasal sinus diseases. A review of 512 (1024 sides) paranasal sinus tomographic scans was carried out to expose remarkable anatomic variations of this region. We used only coronal sections, but for some cases to clear exact diagnosis, additional axial CT scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nasal endoscopy were also performed. In this pictorial essay, rates of remarkable anatomic variations in paranasal region were displayed. The images of some interesting cases were illustrated, such as the Onodi cell in which isolated mucocele caused loss of visual acuity, agger nasi cell, Haller's cell, uncinate bulla, giant superior concha bullosa, inferior concha bullosa, bilateral carotid artery protrusion into sphenoid sinus, maxillary sinus agenesis, bilateral secondary middle turbinate (SMT) and sphenomaxillary plate. The clinical importance of all these variations were discussed under the light of the literature. It was suggested that remarkable anatomic variations of paranasal region and their possible pathologic consequences should be well defined in order to improve success of management strategies, and to avoid potential complications of endoscopic sinus surgery. The radiologist must pay close attention to anatomical variations in the preoperative evaluation.     

飞行人员鼻科疾病谱研究（摘要）

目的总结飞行人员鼻科疾病谱的变化规律。方法对1966～2007年闾住院的320名373例次飞行人员的鼻科疾病谱进行对比分析。结果排鼻科疾病谱前位的为慢性鼻窦炎、鼻息肉、鼻窦气压伤、鼻中隔偏曲、变应性鼻炎、慢性鼻炎、鼻窦囊肿、急性鼻窦炎、鼻腔鼻窦肿瘤、鼻外伤等。飞行合格283人,暂时飞行不合格12人,永久停飞25人。     

CT characterization of developmental variations of the paranasal sinuses in cystic fibrosis

Purpose: To describe variations of paranasal sinus development in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) and in non-CF patients examined for inflammatory sinonasal disease. We focused on anatomic variants that predispose to orbital and cerebral penetration during functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS), e.g. hypoplasia of the maxillary sinus and low ethmoid roof.Material and Methods: One hundred and sixteen CF patients (3-54 years, median 18) and 136 control patients (7-51 years, median 31) were examined with coronal CT of the paranasal sinuses. CF patients were grouped according to number of confirmed mutations: CF-2 (n=70), CF-1 (n=32), CF-0 (n=14). CT images were evaluated with respect to paranasal sinus development, pneumatization variants and bony variants.Results: Frontal sinus aplasia and maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid sinus hypoplasia were markedly more frequent in CF-2 than in control patients. No CF-2 patient had pneumatization variants such as Haller cells or concha bullosa. Low ethmoid roof was seen in 30% of CF-2 children, but in no control children. CF-1 and CF-0 groups had prevalences of aplasia and hypoplasia intermediate to that of CF-2 and control patients.Conclusion: Genetically verified CF patients had less developed sinuses, lacked pneumatization variants, and more often had anatomic variants that predispose to complications during FESS. Normally developed sinuses and pneumatization variants in some genetically unverified CF patients (CF-1, CF-0) suggest that these patients may be erroneously diagnosed.     

CT demonstration of accessory nasal turbinates: secondary middle turbinate and bifid inferior turbinate

Normally, there are three pairs of nasal turbinates in the nasal cavity. Coronal computed tomographies of 253 cases of sinusitis were examined for the presence of additional turbinates and bilateral secondary middle turbinates were detected in two cases. Also, we describe another accessory turbinate, 'bifid inferior turbinate', in one of these cases. Existence of these accessory turbinates may occur during embryologic development of lateral nasal wall.     

Inferomedially projecting pneumatised secondary middle turbinate

Secondary middle turbinate (SMT), a rare variation of the nasal cavity, is a bony projection covered by soft tissue that arises from the lateral nasal wall. It is almost always bilateral and usually projects superomedially without any ostiomeatal unit obstruction. Herein, we report a case of bilateral inferomedially projecting secondary middle turbinates, one of which is pneumatised and hypertrophied, resembling a large ethmoid bulla extending into the middle meatus. The recognition of this variation is important since it may predispose to inflammatory sinus disease, by narrowing the ostiomeatal unit.     

鼻中隔偏曲与单侧上颌窦炎性病变的临床观察与CT图像处理

目的通过临床和CT图像观察了解鼻中隔偏曲与单侧上颌窦炎性病变的关系，探讨鼻中隔偏曲在慢性鼻窦炎发病中的作用。方法前瞻性、连续收集经鼻窦冠状位CT扫描证实的鼻中隔偏曲伴单侧上颌窦炎性病变（包括慢性上颌窦炎、上颌窦浆液性囊肿、上颌窦后鼻孔息肉和霉菌性上颌窦炎）患者56例，观察单侧上颌窦炎性病变与鼻中隔偏曲的关系。随机抽取10例患者的鼻窦冠状位CT图像，按Uygur法计算钩突所在平面两侧下鼻甲、钩突和中鼻甲的横断面积（以坐标纸格数表示）在各自鼻腔所占的百分数，并与10例正常对照（鼻中隔正直、无鼻窦病变）进行比较。结果56例患者中，单侧慢性上颌窦炎25例，上颌窦后鼻孔息肉9例，上颌窦浆液性囊肿5例，霉菌性上颌窦炎17例；病变位于鼻中隔偏曲鼻腔宽大侧35例（62．5％），狭窄侧21例（37．5％）。10例鼻中隔偏曲伴单侧上颌窦炎性病变患者下鼻甲、钩突和中鼻甲的横断面积在各自鼻腔所占的百分数在鼻腔宽侧为48．8％，窄侧为44．1％，两侧无显著性差异（P〉0．05）。10例正常对照下鼻甲、钩突和中鼻甲的横断面积在各自鼻腔所占的百分数为右侧40．1％，左侧39．8％，两侧无显著性差异（P〉0．05）。结论鼻中隔偏曲使鼻腔宽大侧发生单侧上颌窦炎性病变的机会大于鼻腔狭窄侧；临床处理上颌窦炎性病变的同时应矫正偏曲的鼻中隔，恢复鼻腔鼻窦正常的结构和功能，阻断鼻中隔偏曲造成的代偿失调。     

Pleomorphic adenoma originates from inferior nasal turbinate causing epiphora

Pleomorphic adenoma is the most common benign tumor of the salivary glands. A 62-year-old female patient presented with epiphora and was suffering from breathing difficulties. With the diagnostic nasal endoscopy, a mass, originating from right inferior nasal turbinate and filling the entire nasal cavity, was seen. Originating from the inferior nasal turbinate is a very rare entity. Paranasal sinus computed tomography and magnetic resonance images revealed a mass that fills and expands the right nasal cavity. Mass was hypoechoic in B-mode ultrasonography and hypovascular in color Doppler ultrasonography, and rate of tissue stiffness was high in sonoelastography. These were helpful for the diagnosis.     

Primary extracranial meningioma of the sinonasal tract

Meningiomas occurring outside the cerebrospinal axis can be primary at an extracranial site (nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and nasopharynx) or secondary extending from an intracranial lesion. Magnetic resonance imaging findings of an 8-year-old child with primary meningioma before and after surgery have been reviewed and compared to computed tomography and histological evaluation. The child had difficulty breathing through the left nostril and tearing of the left eye. After physical and radiological examination, a tumor comprising the left lower, middle turbinate, and ethmoidal cells was found and radically extirpated. On histological examination, the tumor was identified as meningothelial meningioma. On the basis of the clinical, radiological, and histological features, the tumor was diagnosed as extracranial meningioma of the sinonasal tract. A follow-up examination 6 months later revealed no evidence of recurrence of the tumor.     

鼻至斜坡区解剖特点及经扩大的鼻入路切除斜坡区肿瘤的可行性与安全性

 目的 研究扩大的内镜下经鼻至斜坡区手术入路的解剖要点及其位置关系。方法 防腐尸头标本10例,显微镜下解剖观察扩大的经鼻至斜坡区手术入路的解剖结构。新鲜尸头标本5例,模拟扩大的内镜经鼻入路斜坡手术。另外,对2例侵犯斜坡区的病例,采用扩大的内镜下经单鼻孔手术入路,结合影像检查资料,观察肿瘤影像解剖结构及切除情况。结果 扩大的内镜经鼻至斜坡区中线部位主要标志点由前至后依次为中鼻甲、后鼻孔、咽鼓管咽口、鼻咽部黏膜、双侧蝶窦口、头长肌和颈长肌、咽结节、枕骨大孔前缘中点等结构。手术中斜坡能够磨除的最大范围(分别以两侧颅内翼管和破裂孔为界,各自距中线最短距离):翼管左侧(9.25±0.26)mm,右侧(9.19±0.27)mm;破裂孔左侧(10.64±0.43)mm和右侧(10.75±0.51)mm。内镜下完全模拟手术操作表明,内镜经鼻入路可充分显露颅颈交界区及斜坡的解剖结构,完全达到真实内镜下操作要求。2例肿瘤全切,术中、术后未发现严重手术并发症。结论 采用扩大的单纯内镜经鼻入路可更直接到达斜坡区,并可安全切除肿瘤,避免损伤重要的神经血管和脑组织。     

鼻内镜下鼻窦开放联合下鼻甲翻转下鼻道开窗术的临床疗效分析

目的：研究鼻内镜下鼻窦开放联合下鼻甲翻转下鼻道开窗术的疗效表现,分析鼻内镜下鼻窦开放、下鼻甲翻转下鼻道开窗术联合治疗的优势影响。方法随机选择2010年1月～2015年12月收治的100例慢性鼻窦炎患者,采用鼻内镜下鼻窦开放联合下鼻甲翻转下鼻道开窗术治疗方法,根据每例患者临床表现,分析治疗效果。结果100例患者,治愈82例,好转15例,一般2例,无效1例,治疗有效率为97％。结论鼻内镜下鼻窦开放联合下鼻甲翻转下鼻道开窗术治疗技术在临床应用时治疗效果显著,其在治疗效果、安全性、服务表现等方面均表现良好。     

Osteoblastoma in the nasal cavity: F-18 FDG PET/CT and Tc-99m MDP 3-phase bone scan findings with pathologic correlation

A benign osteoblastoma of the nasal cavity is very rare. A 57-year-old woman, who had a radical hysterectomy for carcinoma of the uterine cervix 5 years ago, underwent F-18 FDG PET/CT. An expansile bone tumor with high glucose metabolism in the middle turbinate of the left nasal cavity was incidentally demonstrated. A subsequent Tc-99m methylene diphosphonate 3-phase bone scan revealed focal increased uptake of radionuclide in all 3 phases at the corresponding tumor. Histology confirmed a benign osteoblastoma that was composed of proliferating osteoblasts with woven bone spicules and rich vascular stroma. Scintigraphic findings, including F-18 FDG PET/CT and 3-phase bone scan, reflected the pathologic features well.     

Aberrant middle turbinate masquerading as a nasopharyngeal mass

We present a unique variant of the middle turbinate that extends posteriorly through the choana to wrap around the posterior free edge of the nasal septum. The embryology and anatomy of the lateral nasal wall and the nasal septum are reviewed.     

鼻息肉的CT诊断价值

目的评价CT扫描对鼻息肉的诊断价值。材料和方法42例鼻息肉行轴位及冠状位扫描,其中轴位5例、俯卧冠状位37例,全部病例经鼻内窥镜手术及病理证实。结果42例鼻息肉累及73侧,双侧发病31例、单侧11例。息肉主要发生在筛窦及中鼻道,部分累及上颌窦及下鼻道。全部合并不同程度鼻窦炎,部分见以直形中鼻甲为主的解剖变异及上颌窦囊肿。结论CT特别是俯卧冠状位能提供与功能鼻内窥镜手术方位一致的解剖层面,能清晰显示鼻腔及鼻窦的病变、解剖结构及变异,对手术及防止发生并发症有重要指导意义。