Parenting Style and Developmental Status Among Children with Nonorganic Failure to Thrive

Examined differences in several developmental indices of competenceamong 102 low-income, inner-city, predominantly African Americanchildren with non-organic failure to thrive (NOFTT) and a comparisongroup of 67 children with adequate growth matched on age, gender,race, and socioeconomic status. Parents were categorized intoone of three groups (nurturant, authoritarian, and neglecting)based on observations during feeding. Parents of children withNOFTT were less nurturant and more neglecting than parents ofcomparison children. Associations between parenting style andchildren's social-cognitive development were similar acrossgroups. Children of nurturant parents consistently demonstratedbetter social-cognitive development. Results support the importanceof considering heterogeneity among high-risk families and theneed to examine the relationships linking parenting style andchild development.     

Pediatric parenting stress among parents of children with type 1 diabetes: the role of self-efficacy, responsibility, and fear

OBJECTIVE: Parents of children with type 1 diabetes are crucial to promoting positive disease adaptation and health outcomes among these youngsters, yet this success may come at some consequence to parents' own well-being. Little research has examined the stress faced by parents, or explored the psychological and behavioral correlates of their stress. METHODS: One hundred and thirty-four parents of children with type 1 diabetes completed measures of diabetes self-efficacy, responsibility for diabetes management, fear of hypoglycemia, and a recently developed measure of pediatric parenting stress (the Pediatric Inventory for Parents [PIP]; R. Streisand, S. Braniecki, K. P. Tercyak, & A. E. Kazak, 2001). RESULTS: Bivariate analyses suggest that pediatric parenting stress is multifaceted; the frequency of parenting stress is negatively related to child age and family socioeconomic status and positively related to single parent status and regimen status (injections vs. insulin pump). Difficulty of parenting stress is negatively related to child age and positively related to regimen status. In multivariate analyses, a significant portion of the variance in stress frequency (32%) and difficulty (19%) are associated with parent psychological and behavioral functioning, including lower self-efficacy, greater responsibility for diabetes management, and greater fear of hypoglycemia. CONCLUSIONS: Each area of parent functioning associated with pediatric parenting stress is amenable to behavioral intervention aimed at stress reduction or control and improvement of parent psychological and child-health outcomes.     

Stress: A Potential Disruptor of Parent Perceptions and Family Interactions

Reviews research on the relationship between extra familial stressors (e.g., unemployment, low socioeconomic status), interpersonal stressors (e.g., marital distress, divorce), and child stressors and parents' perceptions and family interactions in families with conduct-problem children. Various stressors appear to have the power to disrupt parenting practices seriously by causing some parents to be more irritable, critical, and punitive. Such parenting behaviors increase the likelihood that children develop conduct problems, setting in motion a cycle of negative parent-child interactions and further stress on the parents. This process appears to be mediated by patents' psychological well being, quality of social support or degree of isolation, sex and drug use.     

Parenting Stress Among Caregivers of Children With Bipolar Spectrum Disorders

Caregivers of psychiatrically impaired children experience considerable parenting stress. However, no research has evaluated parenting stress within the context of pediatric bipolar spectrum disorders (BPSD). Thus, the aim of this investigation was to identify predictors and moderators of stress among caregivers in the Longitudinal Assessment of Manic Symptoms study. Participants included 640 children and their caregivers in the Longitudinal Assessment of Manic Symptoms cohort. Children had a mean age of 9.4 ± 1.9 years (68% male, 23% BPSD); parents had a mean age of 36.5 ± 8.3 years (84% mothers). Children with BPSD had more service utilization, psychiatric diagnoses, mood and anxiety symptoms, and functional impairment but fewer disruptive behavior disorders. Caregivers of children with BPSD were more likely than caregivers of children without BPSD to have a partner, elevated depressive symptoms, antisocial tendencies, and parenting stress (Cohen’s d = .49). For the whole sample, higher child IQ, mania, anxiety, disruptive behavior, and caregiver depression predicted increased parenting stress; maternal conduct disorder predicted lower stress. Child anxiety and disruptive behavior were associated with elevated caregiver stress only for non-BPSD children. Caregivers of children with BPSD experience significant burden and thus require specialized, family-focused interventions. As stress was also elevated, to a lesser degree, among depressed caregivers of children with higher IQ, mania, anxiety, and disruptive behavior, these families may need additional supports as well. Although parents with conduct/antisocial problems evidenced lower stress, these difficulties should be monitored. Thus, parenting stress should be evaluated and addressed in the treatment of childhood mental health problems, especially BPSD.     

Spillover of Marital Interactions and Parenting Stress in Families of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Few disorders appear to be more challenging for parents than autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Little is known about the extent to which parenting stress experienced by parents of children with ASD affects or is affected by marital quality. We examined daily spillover between level of parenting stress and marital interactions in a sample of 176 married couples (89.4% Caucasian, non-Hispanic) who have a child with ASD (5–12 years of age, 85% male) via a 14-day daily diary approach. On each day of the daily diary, parents individually reported on 8 positive and 8 negative marital interactions and their level of parenting stress. Dyadic multilevel modeling analyses using hierarchical linear modeling were conducted to examine same-day and lagged-effect associations between number of positive and negative marital interactions and level of parenting stress. Having a day with a higher number of negative marital interactions was associated with a higher level of parenting stress for both mothers and fathers of children with ASD. Having a day with fewer positive marital interactions was associated with having a more stressful parenting day for mothers of children with ASD. Same-day spillover was moderated by parent gender and the functioning of the child with ASD. Spillover flowed bidirectionally for mothers of children with ASD. Helping parents of children with ASD find ways to engage in positive marital interactions on stressful parenting days and avoid having negative affect, tension, and behaviors stemming from negative marital interactions spill into parenting experiences are important intervention targets.     

The impact of high neuroticism in parents on children's psychosocial functioning in a population at high risk for major affective disorder: a family-environmental pathway of intergenerational risk

Behavioral genetic studies indicate that nongenetic factors play a role in the development of bipolar and major depressive disorders. The trait of neuroticism is common among individuals with major affective disorders. We hypothesized that high neuroticism among parents affects the family environment and parenting practices and thereby increases the risk of psychosocial problems among offspring. This hypothesis is tested in a sample of participants at high and low risk for major affective disorders, which contained parents with bipolar disorder (55), major depression (21), or no mental disorder (148) and their 146 children between 4 and 14 years of age. Parents with high neuroticism scores were characterized by low psychosocial functioning, poor parenting, more dependent stressful life events, and the use of more emotion-focused and less task-oriented coping skills. High neuroticism in parents was associated with internalizing and externalizing problems among the children, as assessed by parent and teacher ratings on the Child Behavior Checklist and clinician ratings. The results suggest that high neuroticism in parents with major affective disorders is associated with inadequate parenting practices and the creation of a stressful family environment, which are subsequently related to psychosocial problems among the offspring.     

Family Ecological Predictors of Physical Activity Parenting in Low-Income Families

Physical activity (PA) parenting, or strategies parents use to promote PA in children, has been associated with increased PA in children of all ages, including preschool-aged children. However, little is known about the circumstances under which parents adopt such behaviors. This study examined family ecological factors associated with PA parenting. Low-income parents (N = 145) of preschool-aged children (aged 2 to 5 years) were recruited from five Head Start centers in upstate New York. Guided by the family ecological model (FEM), parents completed surveys assessing PA parenting and relevant family and community factors. Hierarchical regression analysis identified independent predictors of PA parenting. Parent depressive symptoms, life pressures that interfere with PA and perceived empowerment to access PA resources were associated with PA parenting. Community factors, including neighborhood play safety and social capital, were not independently associated with PA parenting in the multivariate model. Together, family ecological factors accounted for a large proportion of the variance in PA parenting (R ² = .37). Findings highlight the need to look beyond cognitive predictors of PA parenting in low-income families and to examine the impact of their broader life circumstances including indicators of stress.     

Effect of Maternal Anxiety on Parenting Stress of Fathers of Children With ADHD

BackgroundHyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) increase parenting stress and familial conflict. Among parent-related factors, maternal mental health has been studied in-depth, but studies on paternal factors in this context are scarce. This cross-sectional study was conducted of children with ADHD and their parents in South Korea. We investigated the relationships between ADHD symptom severity of children and the mental health of their mothers and fathers.MethodsThe study included 70 children with ADHD and their 140 married heterosexual parents (70 fathers and 70 mothers). Children completed the Child Depression Inventory and State-Anxiety Inventory for children, and their parents completed the Korean ADHD rating scale-IV, Adult ADHD self-report scale, State-Anxiety Inventory, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and Parental Stress Scale.ResultsThere was a significant positive correlation between children’s ADHD symptoms and maternal anxiety symptom severity, whereby more severe ADHD symptoms were associated with more severe maternal anxiety symptoms. There was also a significant positive correlation between maternal anxiety symptom severity and paternal parenting stress severity, whereby more severe maternal anxiety was associated with more severe paternal parenting stress. A mediation model showed that paternal parenting stress severity was not directly related to children’s ADHD symptoms, but the severity of maternal anxiety mediated this relationship.ConclusionThe present study found the importance of mental health in mothers of children with ADHD and the interrelatedness of mental health within families. Future assessments and treatment of children with ADHD should include both the children and their parents.     

Parenting and the psychological development of a representative sample of triplets conceived by assisted reproduction

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to examine the quality of parenting and the psychological development of three-year-old children in IVF/ICSI families with triplets. METHODS: Comparisons were carried out between a representative sample of 10 families with triplets and matched groups of 15 families with twins and 30 families with singletons. The families were recruited from Follow-Up, a national organization in France that was established to study children conceived by assisted reproduction. Standardized measures of the mother's psychological well-being (parenting stress, depression and quality of marriage) and standardized measures of the child's psychological development (emotional/behavioural problems and general development) were completed by the mother. RESULTS: Mothers with a multiple birth were found to experience greater difficulties in parenting than mothers of singletons, with no differences between mothers of triplets and mothers of twins. Regarding the children, there were no differences in emotional or behavioural problems between triplets, twins and singletons. However, there were indications of mild delay among triplets and twins in some aspects of language development in comparison with the singleton children. CONCLUSIONS: The birth of triplets or twins does appear to cause difficulties for parents in the early years, however, the children themselves do not seem to experience markedly raised levels of psychological or developmental problems.     

Predictors of parenting behavior trajectories among families of young adolescents with and without spina bifida

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the utility of familial and parental variables in predicting trajectories of parenting behaviors among families of young adolescents with and without spina bifida (SB). METHOD: Sixty-eight families with a child with SB and a demographically matched comparison group (CG) of 68 families of an able-bodied child participated. Observational and questionnaire assessments of parenting behavior were collected via home visits at three time points, as were reports of parent and family functioning. RESULTS: Family conflict was negatively associated with adaptive parenting behavior at Time 1 (T1), but positively associated with adaptive parenting change. Although the direction of this effect was the same across both groups, findings were more robust for the SB sample. Among fathers of children with SB, parenting stress was positively associated with adaptive parenting at T1 but negatively associated with adaptive parenting change. In contrast, within the CG, paternal parenting stress was negatively associated with adaptive parenting at T1 but showed no enduring negative effects in longitudinal analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Family conflict and parenting stress were significant predictors of parenting behaviors and longitudinal parenting change. Findings are interpreted within a developmental context such that variables associated with maladaptive (or adaptive) parenting in the short run, may facilitate adaptive (or maladaptive) parenting over time based on young adolescents' changing developmental needs.     

Parental Serotonin Transporter Polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) Moderates Associations of Stress and Child Behavior With Parenting Behavior

The serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) is associated with caregiving in nonhuman animals and with affective and cognitive correlates of human parenting, yet its association with human parenting is largely unknown. Using a well-characterized sample of parents and offspring, we evaluated the association of parental 5-HTTLPR with observed positive and negative parenting behavior, as well as its biologically plausible moderation of child-related stress and disruptive child behavior as predictors of parenting. One hundred and sixty-two parents (86% mothers) and their 6- to 9-year-old children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder were ascertained using multiple methods including structured interviews, rating scales, and observed parent-child interaction, yielding strong measures of key constructs. Controlling for multiple youth-level (e.g., sex, 5-HTTLPR genotype, disruptive behavior) and parent-level (e.g., demographics, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) factors, parents with an S allele exhibited significantly less observed positive parenting than those with the LL genotype. Significant Gene × Environment interactions were also observed: Child-related stress was negatively associated with observed parental negativity among SS/SL genotype parents but not LL genotype parents; next, observed disruptive child behavior was positively associated with parental negativity for both genotypes, but the effect was strongest in SS/SL parents. These preliminary findings suggest that parental 5-HTTLPR is uniquely associated with positive and negative parenting behavior, with more specific patterns according to child-related stress and disruptive child behavior. We consider implications for future research evaluating genetic influences on parenting as well as considerations for designing and delivering parenting-based interventions.     

Family adjustment to childhood developmental disability: a measure of parent appraisal of family impacts

OBJECTIVE: To develop the Family Impact of Childhood Disability Scale (FICD) to assess subjective interpretation or "primary appraisal" of parents regarding the impact of a child with developmental disabilities on the family. METHOD: A random sample of 87 families was assessed while children with developmental disabilities were in the preschool years. After 7 years had elapsed, 64 of these families were interviewed again when the children were in the preteen years. A set of standardized self-report measures provided mother and father views of child, parent, and family functioning. RESULTS: The FICD demonstrated adequate internal consistency, with some evidence of discriminant and predictive validity. The FICD total score, based on the discrepancy between positive and negative subscale scores, was found to be a significant predictor of future parenting stress of mothers and of fathers, even when controlling for other important explanatory variables such as marital adjustment and level of disability in a child. CONCLUSIONS: The 15-item FICD offers a brief assessment of both positive and negative parent appraisals, with a total discrepancy score that predicts long-term parenting stress.     

Early parenthood in a community context: neighborhood conditions,race–ethnicity,and parenting stress

Research has highlighted the role of intrapersonal and family characteristics on stress, but less attention has been paid to the potential influence of the community context and racial‐ethnic differences in early parental experiences. Using an ecological model, this study examines the impact of neighborhood‐level social disorder and social cohesion on parenting stress and whether this is universal across mothers of different race–ethnicities in a sample of mothers of young children in large U.S. cities. Study findings show that neighborhood context is significantly associated with parenting stress and minority parents experience less stress than White parents in higher‐disordered neighborhoods. Findings highlight the need to improve community conditions, social support, and resources to reduce parenting stress. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Childhood illness-related parenting stress: the pediatric inventory for parents

OBJECTIVE: To develop a measure of parenting stress related to caring for a child with an illness and to evaluate its psychometric properties with a group of parents of children with cancer. METHODS: One hundred twenty-six parents (105 mothers, 21 fathers) of children (65 boys and 61 girls, M: age: 12.75 years) being followed by an oncology service were assessed using the 42-item self-report Pediatric Inventory for Parents (PIP). Internal consistency was assessed and construct validity was investigated with standardized, general self-report measures of anxiety and parenting stress. RESULTS: Internal consistency reliability for the PIP was high (Cronbach alpha range:80-.96). PIP scores were significantly correlated with a measure of state anxiety and also with parenting stress, demonstrating construct validity. After we controlled for demographic variables and general parenting stress, PIP scores showed strong independent associations with state anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary data indicate that the PIP is a reliable and valid tool to assess parenting stress in pediatric oncology populations. As a measure of illness-related parenting stress, the PIP may be used to provide information about parent well-being that extends beyond that obtained from general measures.     

A preliminary study of parental stress and child behaviour in families with twins conceived by in-vitro fertilization

This paper reports on a preliminary study of parenting quality, parental stress and child behaviour in families with twins conceived by in-vitro fertilization (IVF) in comparison with families with naturally conceived twins. No differences were found between the types of family in parenting quality or child behaviour. However, parents whose children were conceived by IVF reported greater stress associated with parenting than parents with naturally conceived twins.      

Empirical Support for a Treatment Program for Families of Young Children With Externalizing Problems

We evaluated the efficacy of a manualized multimodal treatment program for young externalizing children. Families were assigned randomly to an immediate 12-week parent and child treatment condition (n = 24) or to a delayed-treatment condition (n = 23). Parents had high attendance, high satisfaction with treatment, and increased knowledge of behavior management principles. Relative to the waitlist condition, treatment parents reported statistically and clinically significant reductions in child behavior problems, improved parenting practices (i.e., increased consistency, decreased power assertive techniques), an increased sense of efficacy, and reduced parenting stress. There was a trend toward parents improving their attitudes toward their children. In considering the process of change, we found evidence that improved parenting practices mediated reductions in child behavior problems and that child improvements mediated changes in parent attitudes and stress. Five months following treatment, teachers reported significant improvements in child behaviors, whereas parents reported that reductions in child behavior problems and parenting stress were maintained.     

Parental anxiety and depression associated with caring for a child newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes: opportunities for education and counseling

Objective

To examine demographic and clinical characteristics, such as pediatric parenting stress and self-efficacy for diabetes care, of parents of children newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes that are associated with parental anxiety and depression.

Methods

102 parents reported on their levels of depression (CESD), state anxiety (STAI), pediatric parenting stress (PIP), and self-efficacy for diabetes care (SED) within 4 weeks of their child's diagnosis with type 1 diabetes. Data were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression.

Results

Parents’ scores in the clinical range for depression and anxiety were associated with increased frequency and difficulty of pediatric parenting stress, and there was a trend for depression to be related to lower self-efficacy for diabetes care. The association of female gender with anxiety and depression was partially mediated by more frequent pediatric parenting stress.

Conclusion

Parents of children newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes are at risk for experiencing anxiety and depression, related, in part, to their experiences of pediatric parenting stress.

Practice implications

Providers and educators should be aware of the risk for depression and anxiety in parents and should work to decrease pediatric parenting stress, increase self-efficacy, and refer parents who are experiencing significant anxiety or depression following their child's diagnosis to a mental health specialist.     

Maternal Attributions of Infant Behavior and Parenting in Toddlerhood Predict Teacher-Rated Internalizing Problems in Childhood

Social-information-processing theories of parenting posit that parents’ beliefs and attributions about their children’s behaviors contribute to how parents interact with their children. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between negative parenting attributions in infancy, harsh-intrusive parenting in toddlerhood, and children’s internalizing problems (IPs) in early childhood. Using data from a diverse longitudinal study (n = 206), the current study used a structural equation modeling approach to test if mothers’ negative attributions measured at 6 months predicted teacher ratings of children’s IPs in 1st grade, as well as the extent to which observed harsh-intrusive parenting behaviors measured at ages 1, 2, and 3 years mediated this link. Maternal negative attributions in infancy predict more IPs in 1st grade, but this link becomes nonsignificant when observed harsh-intrusive parenting is included as a mediator. A significant indirect effect suggests that harsh-intrusive parenting mediates the association between early negative attributions and eventual IPs. Findings from this study identify harsh-intrusive parenting behaviors as one potential mechanism through which the effects of early attributions are carried forward to influence children’s IPs. The developmental and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Developmental Patterns of Child Emotion Dysregulation as Predicted by Serotonin Transporter Genotype and Parenting

Individual differences in emotion regulation are central to social, academic, occupational, and psychological development, and emotion dysregulation (ED) in childhood is a risk factor for numerous developmental outcomes. The present study aimed to (a) describe the developmental trajectory of ED across early childhood (3–6 years) and (b) examine its sensitivity to youth serotonin transporter genotype, positive and negative parenting behaviors, and their interaction. Participants were 99 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of children with or without developmental delays. Child ED and early parenting were coded from parent–child interactions.

To examine serotonin transporter genotype as a moderator between parenting and child emotion dysregulation (ED), children with the homozygous short (SS) genotype were compared to children with the homozygous long (LL) or heterozygous (SL) genotype. We used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to model yearly change in ED from child age 3 to 6 years. LGCM revealed that ED decreased overall across early childhood. In addition, we observed separate Genotype × Positive and Genotype × Negative parenting behavior interactions in predictions of ED growth curves. Children with the SL/LL genotype had ED trajectories that were minimally related to positive and negative parenting behavior, whereas ED decreased more precipitously among children with the SS genotype when exposed to low negative parenting or high positive parenting. These findings provide evidence for Gene × Environment interactions (G×Es) in the development of ED in a manner that is conceptually consistent with vantage sensitivity, and they improve inferences afforded by prospective designs.     

乙型肝炎患儿父母心理健康状况对照研究

采用“家长生活调查问卷”对广州市就读专收ＨＡＡ阳性幼儿园的父母、未有就读任何幼儿园ＨＡＡ阳性儿童的父母、以及就读普通幼儿园健康儿童父母进行了调查，结果发现ＨＡＡ阳性儿童的父母由于承受较大的心理压力而出现更多的心理问题、这种压力影响到父母的身心健康。资料为社会保健提供了依据。