难治性癫痫相关脑血管畸形15例临床病理分析

目的分析并比较因脑血管畸形导致难治性癫痫从而接受癫痫外科手术的15例患者的临床及病理学特点。方法回顾性分析接受脑病灶及致痫灶切除手术的15例脑血管畸形患者的临床资料及病理资料。结果 15例患者均表现为难治性癫痫,其中包括8例海绵状血管瘤,7例Sturge-Weber综合征(SWS)。男性8例,女性7例,发病年龄1月龄~29岁,病程2~24年。手术年龄2~31岁。2例行单脑叶切除,12例行多脑叶切除,1例行功能性大脑半球切除。脑标本镜下可见海绵状血管瘤并局灶性皮质发育不良(FCD)Ⅲc型;软脑膜血管瘤病、灰质中弥漫钙化,脑实质内小血管壁钙化,并伴发局灶性皮质发育不良(FCD)Ⅲc型。术后随访0.5~8年,EngelⅠ级11例,EngelⅡ级2例,EngelⅢ级1例,EngelⅣ级1例。结论脑海绵状血管瘤患者接受癫痫外科手术后随访效果良好;SWS患者颅内病变程度可能与遗传学相关,SWSⅠ型患儿应尽早手术,术后效果良好;SWSⅢ型患者接受血管瘤病病灶及致痫灶切除术后,随访效果良好。     

Seizure outcome after resection of cavernous malformations is better when surrounding hemosiderin-stained brain also is removed

PURPOSE: Considering the epileptogenic effect of cavernoma-surrounding hemosiderin, assumptions are made that resection only of the cavernoma itself may not be sufficient as treatment of symptomatic epilepsy in patients with cavernous malformations. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis whether seizure outcome after removal of cavernous malformations may be related to the extent of resection of surrounding hemosiderin-stained brain tissue. METHODS: In this retrospective study, 31 consecutive patients with pharmacotherapy-refractory epilepsy due to a cavernous malformation were included. In all patients, cavernomas were resected, and all patients underwent pre- and postoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We grouped patients according to MRI findings (hemosiderin completely removed versus not/partially removed) and compared seizure outcome (as assessed by the Engel Outcome Classification score) between the two groups. RESULTS: Three years after resection of cavernomas, patients in whom hemosiderin-stained brain tissue had been removed completely had a better chance for a favorable long-term seizure outcome compared with those with detectable postoperative hemosiderin (p=0.037). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that complete removal of cavernoma-surrounding hemosiderin-stained brain tissue may improve epileptic outcome after resection of cavernous malformations.     

Posterior cortex epilepsy secondary to ulegyria: Is it a surgically remediable syndrome?

Purpose: To examine whether surgery is indicated for posterior cortex epilepsy secondary to ulegyria. Patients and methods: Ten patients who underwent surgery for posterior cortex epilepsy with ulegyria and were followed for more than 2 years were included. All patients underwent comprehensive presurgical evaluations. Five patients underwent intracranial electroencephalography (EEG) studies. The posterior cortex including the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesion was resected in all patients. Postoperative follow‐up period was 2–12 (mean 6) years. Results: Nine patients had a history of perinatal distress including asphyxia and prolonged labor. Age at seizure onset was 5–11 years, except one patient. Three patients had visual field defects preoperatively. Ulegyria was unilateral in four patients and bilateral but unilateral‐predominant in six patients. In most of the cases, the lesions were in the posterior cerebral artery area or the watershed area between middle cerebral and posterior cerebral arteries. In four of five patients who underwent intracranial EEG, seizure onset zones extended outside the lesions. Postoperative seizure outcome was Engel's class I in seven cases, and class III in three cases. Three of four patients whose seizure onset zones were not completely resected achieved class I outcome. Four of six patients with bilateral lesions achieved class I outcome. Conclusion: Ulegyria due to perinatal distress is considered to be a major cause of posterior cortex epilepsy. Long‐term postoperative seizure outcome is favorable. Resection of MRI lesion is important for seizure relief. Bilateral lesions should not be excluded from surgical indication. The usefulness of intracranial EEG may be limited.     

术中磁共振联合显微镜下导航在难治性癫癎脑深部小病变切除术中的应用

目的探讨术中MRI联合显微镜下导航在难治性癫癎病人脑深部小病灶切除中的价值。方法回顾性分析10例脑深部小病灶难治性癫癎病人的临床资料,所有病人行弥散张量纤维束重建,并在术中MRI及显微镜导航下切除病灶,记录骨瓣的大小、手术时间、病灶移位距离、术中MRI扫描次数、术后癫癎发作情况及功能缺失情况。结果本组病人开颅骨窗（44.60±9.19）cm2,手术时间（3.99±0.81）h,病变移位距离（10.50±2.92）mm。病灶移位距离与骨瓣大小、手术时间无明显关系（P〉0.05）。所有病人术中MRI共扫描19次,病灶全部切除。5例病人术后出现肢体偏瘫及视野缺失,术后1年症状改善。术后1年随访癫癎控制疗效：EngelⅠ级5例,Ⅱ级2例,Ⅲ级2例,Ⅳ级1例。结论在伴有癫癎的脑深部小病灶切除术中,应用术中MRI可以及时纠正病灶移位,减少术后神经功能缺失,疗效肯定。     

Long-Term Follow-Up of Stereotactic Lesionectomy in Partial Epilepsy: Predictive Factors and Electroencephalographic Results

We performed an extended follow-up study assessing the efficacy of stereotactic lesionectomy in 23 patients with foreign-tissue lesions and intractable partial epilepsy. Sixteen lesions involved functional or eloquent cortex as determined by anatomic localization. By definition, the surgical objective in these patients was excision of the lesion, and not the surrounding cerebral cortex. The mean duration of follow-up was 48.5 months (range 26-69 months). Seventeen patients (74%) had a significant reduction in seizures (greater than or equal to 90%) after lesionectomy. Thirteen patients (56%) had a class I operative outcome (seizure-free, single seizure episode, or auras only). Five of these patients were successfully discontinued from antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Patients with temporal lobe lesions were statistically less likely to be rendered seizure-free (p less than 0.05). Age at operation, duration of epilepsy, and underlying pathology were not significant predictors of seizure outcome. The anatomic distribution of extracranial EEG recorded epileptiform activity did not appear to be an important determinant of outcome. The absence of interictal epileptiform activity in the 3-month postoperative EEG correlated with a significant reduction in seizures. Long-term follow-up indicates that lesionectomy may be effective in select patients with medically refractory partial seizure disorders.     

多脑叶离断治疗顽固性癫痫

目的 分析多脑叶离断手术治疗顽固性癫痫的预后及神经功能障碍.方法 回顾性分析本院收治的8例多脑叶离断病人临床资料,所有患者均为广泛半球病变,且保留一定的肢体感觉运动等中央区功能,手术方式均为保留中央区的多脑叶离断.随访内容包括发作症状,术后肢体肌力肌张力.结果 至随访结束,按Engel分级：Ⅰ级4例,Ⅱ级3例,Ⅲ级l例.肢体功能障碍轻微.结论 多脑叶离断手术可很好的控制半球病变引起的顽固性癫痫发作,是不适合半球切除或功能半球切除术病例的一个不错选择.     

Supratentorielle Kavernome und epileptische Anfälle

For cavernous haemangiomas, it is the aim of surgical treatment to control epilepsy and eliminate potential sources of intracerebral haematomas. In the following investigation, it was attempted to find indicators for seizure freedom after surgery. Success of therapy was assessed according to three patterns of classification. Thirty patients underwent tailored resection based on findings from preoperative investigations and intraoperative electrocorticography. Follow-up averaged 4 years. Lesionectomy, extended lesionectomy, and modified lobe resection were carried out in 13, 11, and six patients, respectively. For all procedures, including microsurgical lesionectomy, the firm gliotic layer unequivocally differed in colour and consistency from normal brain and was removed. Further tissue resection was carried out only if the electrocortical course suggested persistent spike activity around the resection cavity or if presurgical MRI evaluation (e.g. hippocampal atrophy) or electrophysiology also pointed to pathology distant from the lesion. Of the patients, 53.3% became completely seizure-free (Engel I), and one additional patient had only occasional isolated auras. Dramatic reductions in seizure frequency and severity were exhibited by 26.7%. Outcome in respect to seizure control was not associated with resection procedure, comparing pure lesionectomy with lesionectomy plus cortectomy. In the group of patients with epilepsy surgery, those with hippocampectomy had significantly better outcome than those without. Important prognostic factors were early operation after seizure manifestation (91.7% operated upon within 2 years of seizure onset became seizure-free). Another prognostic factor was unifocal seizure onset (bilateral or multifocal seizure onset was found in care of the ten patients with unfavourable outcome). None of the four patients harbouring multiple cavernomas became seizure-free after resection of one lesion, which was believed to be mostly attributable to the epileptic focus that was removed.     

Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Surgery with Limited Resources: Results and Economic Considerations

Summary: This study evaluates the surgical outcome of patients with medically refractory temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) who underwent anterior temporal lobe lobectomy (ATL) based on data derived from noninvasive studies and assesses the economic costs entailed at a newly created epilepsy program in Chile. Seventeen ATL candidates underwent a presurgical evaluation. This included outpatient brain MRI and neuropsychological testing and inpatient scalp/sphenoidal prolonged video-EEG monitoring. There were 10 females and 7 males, with a mean age of 23.8 years and a mean duration of seizure disorder of 12 years. Patients with congruent data localizing the seizure focus to one anterotemporal region underwent ATL. Seven patients underwent a left-side ATL and 10 patients a right-side ATL. The histopathological findings showed a lowgrade tumor in six patients, hippocampal sclerosis in five, neuronal migration disorder in four, and cavernous angiomas in two patients. The mean follow-up period was 29·1 months. Seizure outcome was assessed with Engel's classification: class I, no seizures or only auras; class II, rare seizures; class III, >90% seizure reduction; class IV, <90% seizure reduction. Fifteen patients are now in class I, one patient in class II, and one in class IV. The total cost, including evaluation and surgery, was equivalent to US$ 5,020. Thus, well-selected TLE patients can derive maximal benefit from ATL after a noninvasive presurgical evaluation. This finding is of great significance for the creation of epilepsy surgery programs in developing countries.     

Epilepsy surgery in children with focal cortical dysplasia (FCD): results of long-term seizure outcome

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of epilepsy surgery on seizure outcome in children and adolescents under 18 years with intractable epilepsy due to focal cortical dysplasia. We analysed clinical data, such as age at seizure onset, epilepsy course, localisation of focus from presurgical evaluation, MRI, tissue pathology and seizure outcome in 68 patients 6 months to 9 years after epilepsy surgery. Seizure outcome was classified according to the Engel classification. Mean age at seizure onset was 7 months, ranging from the first days of life to 7 years. All patients had medically intractable epilepsy. Localisation of the lesion was predominantly extratemporal: posterior (uni- or multilobar) 43 %, frontal without central region 26 %, multilobar involving central area 19 % and temporal in 12 %. MRI signs typically seen in cortical dysplasia (FCD) such as localised blurring of gray-white matter junction was found in 68 %, dysgyria in 62 %, thickening of the cortical ribbon in 46 % and T2 signal elongation of the subcortical white matter in 40 % of the patients' MRI. Age at surgery ranged from 5 months to 16 years; 14 patients were under 2 years when operated on. In 34 patients (6 patients under 3 years) subdural grid electrode evaluation was performed prior to surgery. Pathology revealed focal cortical dysplasia without balloon cells (type I) in 60 %, FCD of the balloon cell subtype (type II) in 40 % of the specimens. Postoperative complications were subdural hygroma in 5 and an increased motor deficit in 2 patients. Up to two years after epilepsy surgery 50 % of the children were seizure free (Engel class I), 10 % Engel class II, 33 % Engel class III and 7 % unchanged (Engel class IV). Long-term seizure outcome (> 3 years post surgery) in 32 patients showed similar results (class I 50 %, class II 19 %, class III 28 %, class IV 3 %). Complete resection of the dysplastic lesion was significantly correlated with favorable seizure outcome, whereas seizure outcome was not significantly different in patients with mild (type I) or balloon cell (type II) FCD. Children operated after 6 years of age had no better outcome than children operated in infancy or at preschool age. Epilepsy surgery resulted in good (class I and II) seizure control in 60 % of children with intractable epilepsy due to focal cortical dysplasia.     

Cliniconeuropathologic correlations show astroglial albumin storage as a common factor in epileptogenic vascular lesions

Purpose: Intracerebral vascular malformations including cavernous angiomas (CAs) and arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are an important cause of chronic pharmacoresistant epilepsies. Little is known about the pathogenetic basis of epilepsy in patients with vascular malformations. Intracerebral deposits of iron‐containing blood products have been generally regarded as responsible for the strong epileptogenic potential of CAs. Here, we have analyzed whether blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and subsequent astrocytic albumin uptake, recently described as critical trigger of focal epilepsy, represent pathogenetic factors in vascular lesion–associated epileptogenesis. Methods: We examined the correlation between hemosiderin deposits, albumin accumulation, and several clinical characteristics in a series of 80 drug‐refractory epilepsy patients with CAs or AVMs who underwent surgical resection. Analysis of clinical parameters included gender, age of seizure onset, epilepsy frequency, duration of epilepsy before surgery, and postoperative seizure outcome classification according to Engel class scale. Hemosiderin deposits in the adjacent brain tissue of the vascular lesion were semiquantitatively analyzed. Fluorescent double‐immunohistochemistry using GFAP/albumin costaining was performed to study albumin extravasation. Key Findings: Our results suggest that a shorter duration of preoperative epilepsy is correlated with significantly better postsurgical outcome (p < 0.05), whereas no additional clinical or neuropathologic parameter correlated significantly with the postsurgical seizure situation. Intriguingly, we observed strong albumin immunoreactivity within the vascular lesion and in perilesional astrocytes (57.65 ± 4.05%), but not in different control groups. Significance: Our present data on albumin uptake in brain tissue adjacent to AVMs and CAs suggests BBB dysfunction and accumulation of albumin within astrocytes as a new pathologic feature potentially associated with the epileptogenic mechanism for vascular lesions and provides novel therapy perspectives for antiepileptogenesis in affected patients.     

幕上海绵状血管瘤伴顽固性癫痫的手术治疗

目的 探讨幕上海绵状血管瘤伴顽同性癫痫的临床特点及手术治疗策略.方法 2000至2008年手术治疗14例幕上脑内海绵状血管瘤患者,术前均行头部MRI检杏,均以顽固性癫痫为主要症状,术后经病理证实并长期随访.结果 所有患者采用多种抗癫痫药物治疗,效果不佳,手术根据病灶数目、位置及与功能区的关系可一期直接完成或分期完成.术后配合药物治疗,经长期随访,癫痫控制良好,无手术导致的功能障碍.结论 MRI诊断海绵状血管瘤有较高的特异性与敏感性,典型表现为T2WI图像上病灶周围有环形低信号区.幕上海绵状血管瘤伴顽固性癫痫的患者应积极手术,且效果较好.具体可根据病灶位置、脑电图表现及临床症状借助颅内电极、立体定向技术制定针对性手术方案.     

High-resolution MRI enhances identification of lesions amenable to surgical therapy in children with intractable epilepsy

PURPOSE: Many children with refractory epilepsy can achieve better seizure control with surgical therapy. An abnormality on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), along with corroborating localization by other modalities, markedly increases chances of successful surgical outcome. We studied the impact of high-resolution MRI on the surgical outcome of intractable epilepsy. METHODS: High-resolution MRI using four-coil phased surface array was obtained as part of the comprehensive presurgical protocol for children with focal onset intractable seizures evaluated by our epilepsy center during the first half of 2002. RESULTS: Thirteen consecutive children, ages 5 to 18 years, entered this prospective study. For four patients with a lesion on a recent MRI examination with a standard head coil, management did not change with high-resolution MRI. Standard MRI in the other nine patients did not identify a lesion. However, high-resolution MRI with the phased-array surface coil found previously undiagnosed focal abnormalities in five of nine patients. These abnormalities included hippocampal dysplasia, hippocampal atrophy, and dual pathology with frontal cortical dysplasia. In four of nine patients, no identifiable lesion was identified on the high-resolution MRI. All patients underwent invasive monitoring. In three of five patients, newly diagnosed lesions correlated with EEG abnormalities, and resection was performed. CONCLUSIONS: In our center, high-resolution MRI identified lesions not detected by standard MRI in more than half the children (56%). Technical advances such as four-coil phased surface array MRI can help identify and better delineate lesions, improving the diagnosis of patients who are candidates for surgical treatment of refractory epilepsy.     

Outcome measurement after vagal nerve stimulation therapy: proposal of a new classification

PURPOSE: Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) is an adjunctive palliative therapy for refractory epilepsy. Effects of treatment are varied and some, such as the use of an external magnet for seizure termination, are unique to VNS. No accepted standard exists for outcome measurement after VNS treatment. We present a novel classification for outcome, which includes assessment of both seizure frequency and severity in VNS-treated patients. METHODS: We devised a classification system modeled on the Engel classification for surgically treated patients, but tailored for use in VNS therapy, which incorporates five classes of outcome. We retrospectively reviewed VNS-treated patients in our centre, and used the data to illustrate our system and compare it with the Engel model. RESULTS: With this system, 48 patients (mean age, 30 years) were followed up over a median of 18 months. Seventy-eight percent had partial epilepsy. Sixteen and a half percent experienced class I outcome (>80% seizure-frequency reduction). Twenty percent had class II improvement (50-79% seizure-frequency reduction). One-third had no improvement (class V). The remaining patients comprised class III (seizure-frequency reduction <50%) or class IV (magnet benefit alone) outcomes. Class I-III outcomes were further subdivided according to effects on ictal or postictal severity. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a new classification, which can be used for all epilepsies and which reflects outcome measures beyond seizure-frequency reduction alone. Use of this system would allow greater comparison between future studies of VNS therapy.     

Outcome of surgical treatment in familial mesial temporal lobe epilepsy

PURPOSE: To describe postoperative outcome in patients with familial mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (FMTLE). METHODS: We studied FMTLE patients who underwent surgical treatment for refractory seizures. FMTLE was defined when at least two individuals in a family had a clinical EEG diagnosis of MTLE. Preoperative investigation included magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), interictal/ictal EEGs, and neuropsychological evaluation. We used Engel's classification for postoperative outcome. RESULTS: To date, 20 FMTLE patients have been operated on, with 1.6 to 9.8 years of follow-up (mean, 5.5 years). Hippocampal atrophy (HA) and other signs of mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS) were present in 18 patients (15 unilateral). Seizures were recorded in 19 patients. Seventeen (85%) patients are in class I. Two patients had normal hippocampal volumes (HcV): one (5%) is in class II and the other (5%) in class IV (extratemporal seizures developed after surgery). One (5%) patient had bilateral HA and is in class III. Qualitative histopathology showed MTS with different degrees of severity. CONCLUSIONS: Refractory FMTLE patients have good surgical outcome when unilateral or clearly asymmetric HA is identified. Preoperative investigation should be the same as that in patients with sporadic refractory MTLE.     

Epilepsy surgery in patients with multiple cerebral cavernous malformations

PurposeCerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) are frequently associated with intractable epilepsy. Whereas surgery indication in single CCMs is clear, data regarding the efficacy of epilepsy surgery in patients with multiple CCMs are scarce. We sought to clarify diagnostic requirements and postoperative outcome in patients with multiple CCMs and refractory epilepsy.MethodsRetrospective analysis of clinical records of hospitalized patients who underwent comprehensive diagnostic work-up including long-term video-EEG monitoring.ResultsFrom a total of 63 consecutive patients with CCMs and medically refractory epilepsy, 11 (17%) had multiple CCMs and underwent epilepsy surgery. There were three females and eight males. Mean age at epilepsy onset was 28.3 years (S.D. 12.3), and at epilepsy surgery, 40.7 years (S.D. 10.3). On average, each patient had 3.7 (S.D. 2.2) supratentorial CCMs. In all cases we identified only one epileptogenic zone. The epileptogenicity was higher for the CCMs located within the temporal lobe. At 2 years follow-up, the outcome according to the Engel classification was Ia (seizure-free) in nine patients (81.8%) and IIb (rare seizures) and IVc (worsening) in two patients, respectively. In one patient, a dual pathology was present and, in another case, de novo appearance of CCMs was demonstrated.ConclusionsOur results show that postoperative outcome in patients with multiple CCMs can be as good as in those with single malformations if proper presurgical identification of the epileptogenic CCMs is done. The possibility of the novo appearance of CCMs or dual pathology may occur and may affect long-term outcome negatively.     

Seizure outcome after temporal lobectomy for temporal lobe epilepsy: a Kaplan-Meier survival analysis

OBJECTIVE: To determine seizure outcome and its predictors in patients with medically refractory temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) after temporal lobectomy (TL). BACKGROUND: TL is the most common surgical procedure performed in adolescents and adults for the treatment of medically refractory TLE. Seizure outcome has been reported extensively during the first few postoperative years, but little is known beyond that time. METHODS: The authors analyzed seizure outcome in 79 patients who underwent TL for epilepsy at the Duke University Medical Center from 1962 through 1984. Patients with less than 2 years of follow-up and degenerative disorders were excluded. Predictors of seizure outcome were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier survival analyses. RESULTS: The mean follow-up was 14 years (range, 2.1 to 33.6 years). Using Engel's classification, 65% of patients were class I, 15% were class II, 11% were class III, and 9% were class IV. At least one postoperative seizure occurred in 55% of subjects. The majority of recurrences (86%) took place within 2 years of surgery. Later recurrences tended not to lead to medical intractability. Higher monthly preoperative seizure frequency was associated with poor seizure outcome. A seizure-free state at 2 years was found to be a better predictor of long-term outcome than the 6-, 12-, and 18-month landmarks. CONCLUSIONS: TL provides sustained, long-term benefit in patients with medically refractory TLE. Seizure-free status at 2 years from the time of surgery is predictive of long-term remission.     

Seizure outcome after temporal lobectomy in temporal lobe cortical dysplasia

PURPOSE: To identify the temporal lobe cortical dysplasia (CD) histopathology classification subtype and determine the seizure outcome of patients who underwent temporal lobectomy with coincident CD. METHODS: We reviewed the data of 28 patients with temporal lobe epilepsy who underwent surgery with pathologically verified CD at our institution from 1990 to 2000. The seizure outcome was assessed at a minimum of 1 year after surgery according to Engel's classification. RESULTS: Of 28 patients who underwent surgery, nine (32.1%) had isolated CD, and 19 (67.9%) had CD and hippocampal sclerosis (CD&HS). Twenty-six (92.9%) patients had histopathology subtype Ia (architectural abnormalities). Twenty (71.4%) patients were seizure free (Engel class I). Favorable seizure outcome (Engel class I, II) was achieved in 26 (92.9%) patients. No difference in seizure outcome was noted between patients with CD and CD&HS. CONCLUSIONS: The most common histopathologic subtype in patients with temporal lobe CD is type Ia (architectural abnormalities). Temporal lobectomy in temporal lobe epilepsy patients with CD can achieve favorable seizure outcome.     

Surgical Outcome in Patients with Epilepsy with Occult Vascular Malformations Treated with Lesionectomy

Summary: Purpose: This retrospective study reports the long-term surgical outcome of patients with medically refractory epilepsy and vascular malformations who were treated with lesionectomy. A detailed analysis of surgical failures had been performed in an attempt to define predictors of surgical success and failure.
Methods: Fifteen patients with medically intractable epilepsy and angiographically occult vascular malformations (AOVMs) were treated surgically with lesionectomy at Duke University Medical Center. Lesionectomy consisted of removal of the AOVM and surrounding hemosiderin-stained brain only, without the use of electrocorticography (ECoG) to guide resection.
Results: Eleven (73%) patients are seizure free after lesionectomy. Three showed no significant improvement, and one patient died, presumably after a seizure. Age of onset, duration of seizures, age at resection, and gender did not affect outcome. All patients with neocortical AOVMs in whom EEG findings correlated with the site of the lesion were seizure free after lesional resection. Treatment failures were associated with the presence of multiple intracranial lesions, poorly localized or diffuse EEG findings, discordant positron emission tomography (PET) imaging, or with a lesion in close proximity to the limbic system.
Conclusions: Lesionectomy, with removal of surrounding hemosiderin-stained brain, can be considered the procedure of choice in carefully selected patients with epilepsy with occult vascular malformations.     

Surgical treatment of multifocal epilepsy involving eloquent cortex

PURPOSE: This report describes our long-term follow-up for combined resective surgery and multiple subpial transections (MSTs) in patients with refractory epilepsy involving eloquent and noneloquent cortex in multiple lobes. Multiple independent seizure foci made these patients poor candidates for conventional surgery. METHODS: MST and resective surgery were used in 13 patients to treat localization-related refractory epilepsy involving eloquent and noneloquent cortex of two or more lobes. Preoperative investigation was followed by invasive monitoring. RESULTS: Eleven patients had MST plus resection involving two different lobes, and two patients had MST plus resection involving three different lobes. MSTs were performed on the primary sensorimotor cortex (eight patients), temporal language area (two patients), Broca's area (one patient), and on both frontal motor and temporal language areas (two patients). Nine patients had a two-stage procedure, and four patients had a three-stage procedure (two consecutive subdural grid studies followed by resections). Average follow-up was 59.2 months (range, 42-98 months). With a modified Engel Outcome Scale, four patients (31%) had a class I outcome; three (23%), class II; three (23%), class III; and three (23%), class IV. Ten (77%) patients had a >50% reduction of seizure burden. CONCLUSIONS: Combined MST and resection can meaningfully improve seizure control in patients with multifocal epilepsy involving eloquent cortex. Prospective randomized studies are needed.     

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Evaluation of Focal Computed Tomography Abnormality in Epilepsy

Sixty-seven patients with epilepsy and isolated enhancing computed tomography (CT) scan lesion were studied with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Fifty-six patients (83.5%) had partial seizures and 11 (16.4%) had generalized seizures. Four distinct groups were identified by MRI: nonspecific 16 cases (23.8%), tuberculoma 38 cases (56.7%), cysticercosis 12 cases (17.9%), and abscess 1 case (1.4%). Patients in the non-specific group had lesions that were hyperintense on T2 images and hypointense or isointense on T1 images. Such lesions resolved completely in 5 months with serial MRIs while the patients were receiving antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Virologic studies, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) serology, are suggested for patients with such MRI lesions.