The role of familial values in understanding the impact of social class on weight concern

OBJECTIVE: To examine the role of social class on aspects of weight concern and to assess the possible impact of values on mediating this association. METHOD: Two hundred fifty-seven girls ranging in age from 13 to 16, from either a fee paying inner city independent girls school (higher class school, n = 135) or a state comprehensive, inner city girls school (lower class school, n = 122) completed a questionnaire concerning their profile characteristics (age, social class), aspects of their weight concern, and their own and their perceptions of their significant others' values (achievement, family life, and physical appearance). RESULTS: The results showed consistent effects of class on weight concern, with the higher class subjects reporting higher levels of restrained eating, greater body dissatisfaction, and body distortion than their lower class counterparts. The results also showed an effect of class on values, with the lower class subjects placing more importance on family life from both their own perspective and that of their parents and friends, and rating their friends as valuing achievement and physical appearance more than the higher class subjects. In terms of the best predictors of weight concern, the results showed that higher levels of restrained eating were related to being from a higher class, placing greater importance upon physical appearance, preferring a thinner ideal female body, and placing less importance upon family life; greater body dissatisfaction was related to being from a higher social class, placing greater importance upon physical appearance and a lower importance upon achievement, and greater body distortion was related to being from a higher social class and a high value placed upon physical appearance. CONCLUSION: The results indicate both a direct social class/weight concern link and a relationship which is mediated by values. The results are discussed in terms of developing an improved measure of class values and the relatively stable nature of class boundaries.     

The bold and the beautiful. Influence of body size of televised media models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake

The effects of exposure to televised thin and average size models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake were examined. Normal weight female students (N=104) were exposed to a 30-min movie clip featuring beautiful girls. Half of them viewed the movie clip in normal screen size (4:3) and the other half viewed the same movie clip in broad screen size (16:9), in which the body size of the actresses was slightly stretched breadthways. Actual food intake while watching and body dissatisfaction afterwards was examined. Additionally, restrained eating was assessed as a possible moderating variable. Two interaction effects were found between screen size and restrained eating on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake. Restrained eaters tended to feel worse and eat less in the average size condition compared to the thin model condition, whereas unrestrained eaters felt worse and ate less in the thin model condition compared to the average size condition. So, body size of televised images affected body dissatisfaction and food intake, differentially for restrained and unrestrained eaters. The screen sizes used correspond with widely used screen sizes nowadays enhancing the practical relevance of the study, since screen size might affect body dissatisfaction and food intake in daily life as well.     

Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in elementary-age school girls

Concerns about weight, shape, body image, dieting, and eating are evident among elementary-age school girls [Int. J. Eating Disord. 10 (1991) 199; J. Adolesc. Health 12 (1991) 307; Pediatrics 84 (1989) 482; J. Clin. Psychol. 21 (1992) 41; Addict. Behav. (2000).]. Body image dissatisfaction, found to predict the formation of eating disturbances in longitudinal studies [Eating Disord.: J. Treat. Prev. 2 (1994) 114; Int. J. Eating Disord. 18 (1995) 221.], is likely a necessary precursor of eating disturbance development [J. Abnorm. Psychol. 102 (1993) 438.]. Turning back the etiological clock, this study examines the association between body image dissatisfaction and four potential areas of influence, including peer relationships, family characteristics, personality features, and body mass index, among girls in grades three, four, and five. Each conceptual area significantly contributed to the prediction of body image dissatisfaction. The combination of statistically significant variables, including teasing, peer modeling of weight and shape concerns, daughters' perceptions of parental influence to lose or control weight, appearance comparison, sensitivity, and body mass index, accounted for 50% of the variance in general body image dissatisfaction and 45% in weight and shape dissatisfaction. Implications for prevention, treatment, and future research are discussed.     

Association between puberty and disordered eating, body image, and other psychological variables.

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between puberty and disordered eating, body image, and other psychological variables. METHOD: Females were grouped into three categories of age at puberty onset (Study 1; N = 267) as well as three categories of self-perception of prepubertal weight (Study 2; N = 222). Participants in both studies were matched on current body mass index (BMI) across categories. RESULTS: Females who perceived themselves to be overweight prior to puberty scored significantly higher on measures of disordered eating, body dissatisfaction, asceticism, drive for thinness, impulse regulation, interoceptive awareness, and perfectionism. They also perceived their current body figure to be larger when compared with those who believed they were average or underweight prior to puberty. Age at puberty onset was not significantly associated with disordered eating, body dissatisfaction, depression, or self-esteem. However, females who entered puberty at an earlier age scored higher on measures of asceticism, drive for thinness, impulse regulation, and social insecurity. They also chose a more slender ideal body figure than those who entered at an older age. DISCUSSION: Females who believe they are overweight prior to puberty may be at risk for the development of disordered eating, body image dissatisfaction, and related problems. Age at puberty onset is not a consistent risk factor of pathological eating.     

Nonreporting of body mass index: a research note on the interpretation of missing data

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the correlates of missing values on body mass index (BMI), with a view to distinguishing between potential hypotheses as to their origin. METHOD: Participants were 1,452 secondary school students who completed questionnaire measures of BMI, perceived weight, body dissatisfaction, appearance investment, and eating disorder symptomatology. RESULTS: More than one fourth of the sample had missing values on height or weight, the highest proportion of missing data occurring among older girls. Missing status on weight was associated with poorer body image and a greater investment in appearance for girls, but not for boys. CONCLUSION: It was concluded that the pattern of results was most consistent with the hypothesis that missing values resulted from motivated nonresponding. More generally, the study provides an illustration of the usefulness of treating missing values as data in their own right.     

Girls at risk for overweight at age 5 are at risk for dietary restraint, disinhibited overeating, weight concerns, and greater weight gain from 5 to 9 years

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to investigate the emergence of dietary restraint, disinhibited eating, weight concerns, and body dissatisfaction among girls from 5 to 9 years old, and to assess whether girls at risk for overweight at age 5 were at greater risk for the emergence of restraint, disinhibited overeating, weight concerns, and body dissatisfaction. DESIGN: Longitudinal data were used to assess the relationship between weight status and the development of dietary restraint, aspects of disinhibited overeating, weight concern, and body dissatisfaction at ages 5, 7, and 9 years. SUBJECTS: Participants were 153 girls from predominately middle class and exclusively non-Hispanic white families living in central Pennsylvania.Statistical analyses Differences in weight status, dietary restraint, disinhibition, weight concern, and body dissatisfaction between girls at risk (>85th percentile body mass index) or not at risk for overweight at age 5 were assessed using repeated measures analysis of variance at ages 5, 7, and 9 years. RESULTS: Girls who were at risk for overweight at age 5 reported significantly higher levels of restraint, disinhibition, weight concern, and body dissatisfaction by age 9. Girls at risk for overweight at age 5 also showed greater increases in weight status from 5 to 9 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Higher levels of dietary restraint, weight concern, and body dissatisfaction among young girls at risk for overweight were accompanied by greater weight gain from 5 to 9 years of age, consistent with other recent findings suggesting that youths' attempts at weight control may promote weight gain. Positive alternatives to attempts at dietary restriction are essential to promoting healthful weight status among children, and should include encouraging physical activity, promoting children's acceptance of a variety of low-energy-density foods, and providing guides to appropriate portion sizes.     

Predictors of body image dissatisfaction and disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors in African American and Hispanic girls

Disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors are widespread among girls in the United States. Because obesity is one of the leading risk factors for eating disorder development, African American and Hispanic girls may be at heightened risk due to their greater prevalence and degree of overweight. The present study examined the associations among disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors, body image dissatisfaction, weight classification, fears of negative evaluation, and coping skills among 139 African American and Hispanic girls in Grades 4 and 5 from a low-income urban area. African American girls had significantly lower body image dissatisfaction than Hispanic girls. Significant predictors of body image dissatisfaction included fear of negative evaluation and weight classification. Fear of negative evaluation was also a significant predictor of disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors. Overall, 10.1% of the African American girls and 12.7% of the Hispanic girls qualified for a diagnosis of a probable eating disorder. Girls with eating disorders had greater fears of negative evaluation and engaged in more cognitive avoidance. Both groups are at risk of eating disorder development.     

Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls: a prospective study

OBJECTIVE: Despite evidence that body dissatisfaction predicts the onset of eating pathology and depression, few prospective studies have investigated predictors of body dissatisfaction. METHOD: We examined risk factors for body dissatisfaction using prospective data from 531 adolescent boys and girls. RESULTS: Elevations in body mass, negative affect, and perceived pressure to be thin from peers, but not thin-ideal internalization, social support deficits, or perceived pressure to be thin from family, dating partners, or media, predicted increases in body dissatisfaction. Gender moderated the effect of body mass on body dissatisfaction and revealed a significant quadratic component for boys, but not girls. Gender also moderated negative affect. DISCUSSION: Results support the assertion that certain sociocultural, biologic, and interpersonal factors increase the risk for body dissatisfaction, but differ for boys and girls. Results provided little support for other accepted risk factors for body dissatisfaction.     

Effects of a body image curriculum for college students on improved body image.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the effects of an undergraduate body image course, "Body Traps: Perspectives on Body Image," on decreasing body dissatisfaction, weight concern, and disordered eating behaviors. METHODS: Twenty-four undergraduate females enrolled in the body image course. Measures of body image and disordered eating patterns were assessed at baseline and at postintervention. RESULTS: Subjects significantly decreased the frequency and severity of their body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. No changes in body mass index or global self-esteem were observed. DISCUSSION: This is the first investigation to demonstrate that a formal, academic course can result in the reduction of both attitudinal and behavioral eating disorder risk factors. Future controlled studies need to be undertaken to substantiate this effect.     

A cross-cultural examination of weight-related teasing, body image, and eating disturbance in Swedish and Australian samples

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate, cross-culturally, a model for the prediction of eating disturbance from factors such as body image disturbance, negative verbal feedback regarding appearance (teasing), and body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Three samples of adolescent girls from Sweden (Grade 8: n = 260; mean age = 14.3) and Australia (Grade 7: n = 159; mean age = 12.8 and Grade 8: n = 210; mean age = 13.7) completed two measures of eating restraint and one scale each reflective of bulimic symptomatology, teasing history, and body dissatisfaction. RESULTS: Path analyses revealed that BMI predicted teasing and body dissatisfaction, and body dissatisfaction predicted level of eating restraint. In all three samples, there was evidence of partial mediation by teasing of the connection between BMI and restraint. DISCUSSION: The results partially replicate previous work with U.S. samples. The findings are discussed with regard to the need for further cross-cultural work and its relevance for identifying factors for early intervention and prevention programs.     

Changes in weight and body image over time in women with eating disorders

BACKGROUND: This study examined the changes in body image and weight in young women with an adolescent eating disorder, relative to women without an eating disorder (noED). METHOD: Three diagnostic groups, anorexia nervosa (AN; n = 10), bulimia nervosa (BN; n = 27), and binge eating disorder (BED; n = 42) and three comparison groups (noED; n = 659 each) were compared on body mass index (BMI) and self-reported current body size, ideal body size, and weight dissatisfaction. Dependent variables were examined 2 and 1 year before the onset, the onset year, and 1 and 2 years after the onset of the eating disorder in a model that was adjusted for ethnicity and BMI. RESULTS: BMI was lower in the AN group at all time points except 2 years before onset. AN girls evidenced a significantly stronger relation between BMI and current self-ratings and weight dissatisfaction than noED girls. BMI did not differ between the BN group and the noED group. Girls with BN reported larger current body sizes and greater weight dissatisfaction across all time points. The BED group had higher BMI than the noED group across time. BED girls reported greater current body size ratings and weight dissatisfaction than the noED girls. Girls with AN, BN, or BED did not differ from the noED girls on body ideal ratings. DISCUSSION: Body weight seems to influence perception of body size more so for girls with AN than for noED girls. No support was found for an accelerated weight gain over time for BN. Weight may increase over time for the BED group relative to the noED group, but larger studies are needed. Across all three groups, ideal body size appears to be unrelated to diagnostic status. Rather, the risk for developing an eating disorder appears to arise from size overestimation and related weight dissatisfaction.     

The associations of sociocultural attitudes towards appearance with body dissatisfaction and eating behaviors in Hong Kong adolescents

ObjectivesWestern culture has great influences on body dissatisfaction and related eating behaviors in adolescents. This study aimed to assess the sociocultural influences on eating attitudes and motivations among Hong Kong Chinese adolescents.MethodsIn 2007, 909 adolescents (mean age = 14.7 years, 55.3% boys) completed a survey with Stunkard's Figure Rating Scale (FRS), Motivation for Eating Scale (MFES), Eating Attitudes Test (EAT), Revised Restraint Scale (RRS), and Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale (SATAQ). In addition, their body mass index (BMI) was objectively measured.ResultsOur results indicated that Hong Kong adolescents, particularly girls exhibited a remarked level of body dissatisfaction, external, emotional, restrained and disordered eating behaviors. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that age, sex and BMI were the most common contributing factors to individual eating styles. SATAQ significantly accounted for an additional variance of body dissatisfaction (2%), physical eating (2%), external eating (1%), emotional eating (3%), restrained eating (5%), and disordered eating (5%).ConclusionsIn Hong Kong, the sociocultural influences on body image and eating disturbance were supported.     

Girls' recurrent and concurrent body dissatisfaction: correlates and consequences over 8 years

OBJECTIVE: The present study examines the patterns of body dissatisfaction during adolescence in order to determine whether girls enter onto trajectories of body dissatisfaction that are associated with eating and depressive symptoms during adolescence and in young adulthood. METHOD: Body dissatisfaction was studied in 120 adolescent girls drawn from a normal population of students enrolled in private schools in a major metropolitan area. They were seen at three times over an 8-year period (mean ages = 14.3, 16.0, and 22.3). RESULTS: Recurrent body dissatisfaction during adolescence was associated with earlier pubertal maturation and elevated depressive and eating symptoms in young adulthood compared with girls who maintained positive body images during adolescence. Concurrent body dissatisfaction was also a correlate of greater depressed affect and eating symptoms at the time these girls experienced body dissatisfaction. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that adolescent body dissatisfaction has consequences for affect in adulthood.     

Suicide and friendships among American adolescents

OBJECTIVES: We investigated the relationship between friendships and suicidality among male and female adolescents. METHODS: We analyzed friendship data on 13,465 adolescents from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health to explore the relationship between friendship and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. We controlled for known factors associated with suicidality. RESULTS: Having had a friend who committed suicide increased the likelihood of suicidal ideation and attempts for both boys and girls. Socially isolated females were more likely to have suicidal thoughts, as were females whose friends were not friends with each other. Among adolescents thinking about suicide, suicide attempts appear largely stochastic, with few consistent risk factors between boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: The friendship environment affects suicidality for both boys and girls. Female adolescents' suicidal thoughts are significantly increased by social isolation and friendship patterns in which friends were not friends with each other.     

Reasons and prevalence of body image dissatisfaction in adolescents

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence of body image (BI) dissatisfaction in adolescents. The study enrolled 641 adolescents aged 11 to 17 from the town of Saudades, Santa Catarina, Brazil. The prevalence of BI dissatisfaction was 60.4% (males = 54.5%, females = 65.7%; p < 0.05). Boys were more likely to wish to increase the size of their body silhouette (26.4%) while girls wished to reduce theirs (52.4%). Adolescents from urban areas manifested greater prevalence of BI dissatisfaction and were more likely to want to reduce their body silhouette. The reasons given by these adolescents for why they were dissatisfied with their body images were similar for both sexes (p = 0.156). When analyzed by neighborhood the urban adolescents said that their dissatisfaction was esthetic, whereas the rural adolescents said it was based on self-esteem. An association was detected between perceived BI and the reasons for dissatisfaction. Conclusions: Esthetics, self-esteem and health were the most common reasons for BI dissatisfaction among these adolescents. More than half of them were dissatisfied with their body silhouettes. Therefore, there is a need for interventions by health services and professionals in this age range in order to avoid possible future problems with eating disorders (anorexia, bulimia and vigorexia).     

Reconceptualization of body image and drive for thinness

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the nature of body image and drive for thinness as multidimensional constructs. Subjects included 111 early adolescent (ages 11-13) girls in Grades 7 and 8 from a private school in Melbourne. METHOD: The participants completed a suite of perceptual, affective/attitudinal, and behavioral measures that included assessment of body mass index, self-concept, body parts, silhouette discrepancy, self-worth, multidimensional body image, body image dissatisfaction, social physique anxiety, eating attitudes and behaviors, and physical activity. RESULTS: The sample reported moderate levels of body image dissatisfaction and a significant association of body image dissatisfaction with drive for thinness. Findings verified the important contribution of the affective/attitudinal components of body image. DISCUSSION: A multidimensional scale devised to test the value of a combined index of self-perceived size, shape, weight, tone, and appearance proved the most effective predictor among the alternative affective/attitudinal scales of body image dissatisfaction. Drive for thinness, as central to this study, was found to be related to, yet distinct from, body image on the basis of behavioral elements such as dieting and activity levels. These findings have ramifications for the design of future research in the body image, drive for thinness, and disordered eating domains. 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Sex differences in the relationships between body dissatisfaction,quality of life and psychological distress

Background : Body dissatisfaction is associated with impairment in women's quality of life (QoL). To date, research has not examined the relationship between body dissatisfaction and men's QoL, or sex differences in this relationship. Methods : A community sample of 966 males and 1,031 females living in Australia provided information about their body dissatisfaction, mental health and physical health‐related QoL, and eating disorder symptoms. Data were analysed using three hierarchical multiple regressions and interactions between body dissatisfaction and sex were examined. Results : For both sexes, increasing levels of body dissatisfaction were associated with poorer mental and physical health‐related QoL and greater psychological distress. The adverse associations between body dissatisfaction and mental health‐related QoL, and between body dissatisfaction and psychological distress, were more pronounced for males. Conclusion : High levels of body dissatisfaction may threaten the psychological and physical wellbeing of both men and women. Body dissatisfaction appears to be a public health problem, distinct from the eating disorders and other adverse psychological phenomena for which body dissatisfaction is commonly discussed as a risk factor. Males, historically understudied and underrepresented in body image research, warrant increased empirical attention.     

Development of body image,eating disturbance,and general psychological functioning in adolescent females: a replication using covariance structure modeling in an Australian sample

OBJECTIVE: The current study is a follow up to a covariance structure modeling (CSM) investigation of predictors of body image, eating dysfunction, and general psychological functioning in U.S. adolescent females. METHOD: Four hundred and seventy Australian girls (13-17 years old) completed measures of teasing history, body dissatisfaction, global psychological functioning, dietary restraint, and bulimic behaviors. They were also measured in order to compute body mass index (BMI). CSM techniques were used to analyze the relationships between these latent variables. Two a priori models were tested, one was selected, and post-hoc model-fitting was undertaken. RESULTS: The final model indicated that BMI directly influenced teasing, which directly influenced body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction influenced both global psychological functioning and restriction, whereas restriction had a direct influence on bulimia. Global psychological functioning also had a direct influence on bulimia. DISCUSSION: The results support previous research indicating that teasing and body dissatisfaction are risk factors for the development of eating disturbances.     

Sociocultural influences on eating attitudes and behaviors,body image,and psychological functioning: A comparison of African-American,Asian-American,and Caucasian college women

Eating attitudes and behaviors, body image, and psychological functioning were evaluated in 98 female college students: 36 African-Americans, 34 Asian-Americans, and 28 Caucasians. African-Americans had significantly higher body mass index than either Asian-American or Caucasians. In contrast, Caucasians reported greater levels of disordered eating and dieting behaviors and attitudes and greater body dissatisfaction than did Asian-Americans and African-Americans who differed little on these measures. The nature of variability in these eating behaviors and attitudes and body image was also examined within each of the three groups. A generally consistent pattern emerged within each racial group: low self-esteem and high public self-consciousness were associated with greater levels of problematic eating behaviors and attitudes and body dissatisfaction. A history of being teased about weight and size was associated with problematic eating behaviors and attitudes and body dissatisfaction in African-Americans and Caucasians but not in Asian-Americans. The findings suggest that there exist important racial differences on various aspects of eating, dieting, and body image in college women. Contrary to hypothesis, the degree of acculturation and assimilation within the African-American and Asian-American groups was unrelated to variability in these domains. © 1995 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The positive influence of maternal identification on body image, eating attitudes, and self-esteem of Hispanic and Anglo girls

OBJECTIVE: The role of maternal identification in the development of girls' body image, eating attitudes, and self-esteem was examined. METHOD: Hispanic and Anglo girls (n = 410) ages 8-13 were surveyed using the Body Esteem Scale (BES), the Children's Eating Attitudes Test, the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, and the Child Figure Drawing task. From this sample, normal-weight girls with high or low scores on the BES were selected for the main study. Ninety-two mother-daughter pairs participated in this second phase in which mothers completed similar questionnaires and girls performed a Q-sort task measuring maternal identification. RESULTS: Maternal identification was positively correlated with girls' self-esteem and negatively correlated with eating problems and body dissatisfaction. Also, mothers with high self-esteem tended to have daughters with high self-esteem. The mothers of girls with low BES scores found a significantly greater discrepancy than the mothers of girls with high BES scores when contrasting their daughters' current shape with either the ideal figure for their daughter or the figure they believed boys would find attractive. DISCUSSION: Girls who aspired to be like their mothers in terms of personality traits felt better about themselves and their bodies compared with girls with low maternal identification.