In vitro effects of nonylphenol on motility,mitochondrial, acrosomal and chromatin integrity of ram and boar spermatozoa

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of nonylphenol (NP) on viability of ram and boar sperm in vitro. Ram or boar spermatozoa were exposed to 1, 10, 100, 250 and 500 μg NP ml^?1 for 1, 2, 3 or 4 h. Computer‐assisted sperm motility analysis (CASA) system was used to evaluate sperm motility characteristics. Flow cytometry was used to determine mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and chromatin integrity, while epifluorescent microscopy was used to determine sperm acrosomal status. Exposure of both species spermatozoa to 250 and 500 μg NP ml^?1 was detrimental to progressive motility (P < 0.05), and its adverse effect was significant at lower (100 μg NP ml^?1) concentration (P < 0.05). The percentages of ram and boar spermatozoa with high MMP declined drastically after exposures to ≥250 μg ml^?1 NP (P < 0.05). Unlike chromatin integrity, which did not appear to be altered by NP exposure, there were dose‐dependent NP effects (P < 0.05) on acrosomal integrity of both species at as low as 1 μg ml^?1 NP for boar spermatozoa and 10 μg ml^?1 NP for ram spermatozoa. These data show adverse effects of NP on ram and boar spermatozoa and thus its potential harmful effects on male reproduction as NP is found in fruits, vegetables, human milk, fish and livestock products.     

Effect of Eurycoma longifolia Jack (Tongkat ali) extract on human spermatozoa in vitro

Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat ali; TA) is a Malaysian shrub used to treat various illnesses including male infertility. Considering that TA is used to improve male fertility and no report regarding its safety has been published, this study investigated the effects of TA extract on various sperm functions. Semen samples of 27 patients and 13 donors were divided into two groups, washed and swim‐up spermatozoa, and incubated with different concentrations of TA (1, 10, 20, 100, 2000 μg ml^?1) for 1 h at 37 °C. A sample without addition of TA served as control. For washed spermatozoa, significant dose‐dependent trends were found for vitality, total motility, acrosome reaction and reactive oxygen species‐positive spermatozoa. However, these trends were only significant if the highest concentrations were included in the calculation. Contrary, the increase in the percentage of acrosome‐reacted spermatozoa with increasing TA concentrations is very significant (P < 0.0001), and a significant difference (P = 0.0069) to the control could even be recorded at 20 μg TA per ml. For swim‐up spermatozoa, no trend could be observed. Results indicate that the TA extract has no deleterious effects on sperm functions at therapeutically used concentrations (<2.5 μg ml^?1). However, at very high concentrations, TA may have harmful effects in vitro.     

Sperm impairments in adult vesper mice (Calomys laucha) caused by in utero exposure to bisphenol A

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of in utero administration of bisphenol A (BPA) on semen parameters of vesper mice. Sixty female Calomys laucha were divided into six groups and received by gavage during gestation the following substances: Water (negative control), Olive Oil (vehicle control), Diethylstilbestrol (DES – positive control – 6.5 μg kg^?1 bw) and BPA (40, 80 and 200 μg kg^?1 bw). Male offspring were euthanised at 70 days of age, and sperm parameters were analysed. BPA reduced normal sperm morphology (water = 96.1 ± 0.65; BPA200 = 96.8 ± 2.3%), sperm membrane integrity (water = 88.8 ± 1,65; BPA200 = 70.6 ± 4,15%), sperm motility (water = 87.5 ± 1.71; BPA200 = 51.3 ±9.9%) and in vitro penetration rates (water = 55.0 ± 7.14; BPA200 = 7.47 ±2.96%), but it did not affect body weight, anogenital distance, sperm DNA integrity and acrosome integrity. In conclusion, in utero exposure to BPA caused a reduction in sperm parameters of adult C. laucha. Natural mating studies should be conducted to verify the effects of BPA on fertility of the animals.     

Milk,caseinate and lactoferrin addition to equine semen cooling extenders

Cooled semen has been used routinely to prolong sperm viability until artificial insemination time. However, spermatozoa are subjected to oxidative stress. The aim of the present work was to investigate the protective and antioxidant effect of the milk proteins lactoferrin (Lf) and caseinate added to equine semen cooling extenders. Semen from six stallions was cooled at 5 °C after resuspension with C1) milk‐ and glucose‐based, C2) 0.6% caseinate, C3) C2 + Lf 200 μg ml^?1, C4) C2 + Lf 500 μg ml^?1 and C5) C2 + Lf 1000 μg ml^?1 extenders, and kept at 5 °C for 24 h. Sperm motility characteristics and intact membrane rates were not different among the treatments (P > 0.05). As a result of the cooling process, the nitrite concentration increased significantly in the cooled semen (69.6 ± 78.9 μm per ×10⁶ spermatozoa) compared with the fresh semen (8.6 ± 1.9 μm per ×10⁶ spermatozoa). In contrast, the H₂O₂ concentrations were lower in the 0.6% caseinate extender (265.9 ± 221.3 μm per ×10⁶ spermatozoa) than in the milk extender (430.9 ± 199.8 μm per ×10⁶ spermatozoa, P < 0.05), showing an antioxidative effect of the caseinate compared with the milk. However, in all groups, hydrogen peroxide concentrations were similar to the undiluted fresh semen (332.8 ± 151.3 μm per ×10⁶ spermatozoa). Caseinate showed to be as efficient as milk to protect equine‐cooled spermatozoon.     

Correlation between lead and cadmium concentration and semen quality

There are contrary reports of association of lead and cadmium with the decline in semen quality. This study evaluates whether seminal lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) at environmental concentration are associated with altered semen quality. We conducted a study of healthy fertile and infertile men 20–43 years of age attending the Andrology Laboratory of Reproductive Biology Department for semen analysis. The semen analysis was carried out according to the WHO 2010 guidelines. Seminal lead and cadmium were estimated by ICP‐AES. The lead and cadmium values were significantly higher in infertile subjects. A negative association between seminal lead or cadmium concentration and sperm concentration, sperm motility and per cent abnormal spermatozoa was found. This study shows that exposure to Pb (5.29–7.25 μg dl^?1) and cadmium (4.07–5.92 μg dl^?1) might affect semen profile in men. Age, diet, smoking and tobacco chewing habits may have an influence on the increase in exposure to Pb and Cd in the individual subjects.     

Effect of Cissampelos capensis rhizome extract on human spermatozoa in vitro

Cissampelos capensis is commonly known by the Afrikaans name ‘dawidjies’ or ‘dawidjieswortel’. C. capensis is the most important and best‐known medicinal plant of the family Menispermaceae used by the Khoisan and other rural people in the western regions of South Africa. Among numerous other ailments, it is traditionally taken to treat male fertility problems. Yet, no studies have investigated the effects of this plant or its extracts on human spermatozoa. The aim of study was to investigate the effects of C. capensis extracts on sperm function. A total of 77 semen samples were collected. Spermatozoa were washed with HTF‐BSA medium and incubated with different concentrations of C. capensis (0, 0.05, 0.5, 5, 50, 200 μg ml^?1) for 1 h at 37 °C. Sperm motility, vitality, acrosome reaction, reactive oxygen species (ROS), capacitation, Annexin V binding, DNA fragmentation and mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ_m) were determined. While viability, Annexin V positivity and Δψ_m were not affected, the percentages of ROS‐positive, TUNEL‐positive, capacitated and hyperactivated spermatozoa increased significantly and dose‐dependently. It is concluded that the alkaloids present in the extract of C. capansis rhizomes triggered sperm intrinsic superoxide production leading to sperm capacitation and DNA fragmentation.     

A comparative study of two cooling protocols on stallion sperm cryosurvival

There are many protocols for horse sperm cryopreservation, but results are inconsistent; sperm survival after freeze‐thawing is usually poor; in consequence, fertility is low. The objective of this work was to see whether slow cooling before freezing to minus 3 °C instead of +5 °C, the traditional target temperature, could improve horse sperm cryosurvival, capability to carry out capacitation and the acrosome reaction induced by progesterone. Spermatozoa from five stallions were packaged in straws and slowly cooled to +5 °C. Half of the straws were frozen directly and the other half was further cooled to ?3 °C before freezing. Progressive motility, viability, plasma membrane integrity, acrosome integrity and capacitation status were assessed. After thawing, there were no differences between cooling treatments on motility, viability, acrosome integrity and capacitation status; however, there was difference (P < 0.05) regarding plasma membrane integrity. Acrosome integrity decreased as incubation, without or with progesterone (2 μg ml^?1), progressed, but there were no differences between cooling treatments regardless of progesterone. Both capacitated and acrosome‐reacted spermatozoa increased as incubation progressed, but there were no differences between cooling treatments regardless of progesterone. Slow cooling to ?3 °C before freezing did not improve horse sperm cryosurvival or capability to undergo the acrosome reaction.     

Lycopene and resveratrol improve post‐thaw bull sperm parameters: sperm motility,mitochondrial activity and DNA integrity

We focussed on evaluating the protective effect of lycopene and resveratrol on post‐thaw bull sperm and oxidative stress parameters. Nine ejaculates for each bull were used in the study. Each ejaculate, splitted into three equal aliquots and diluted at 37 °C with base extenders containing lycopene (1 × 10^?3 g ml^?1) and resveratrol (1 mm ), and no antioxidant (control), was cooled to 5 °C and then frozen. Frozen straws were thawed in a water bath for evaluation. The supplementation of the semen extender with lycopene and resveratrol increased the percentages of post‐thawed computer‐assisted sperm analysis (CASA) motility (55.8 ± 3.8 and 61.9 ± 4.0%) and progressive motility (38 ± 2.4 and 37 ± 8.8), compared with the controls (50.7 ± 2.65 and 33.3 ± 3.74%, respectively, P < 0.05). Resveratrol provided a higher ALH (4.3 ± 0.1), in comparison with the control (3.9 ± 0.3, P < 0.05). The supplementation of the semen extender with lycopene and resveratrol produced a higher mitochondrial activity (24.6 ± 2.9 and 30.1 ± 6.5% respectively), compared with that of the control (11.8 ± 9.5%, P < 0.05). It was determined that both antioxidants resulted in a lower percentage of sperm with damaged DNA than that of the control (P < 0.05). Sperm motion characteristics except for ALH, acrosome integrity, sperm viability and oxidative stress parameters were not affected by the adding of lycopene and resveratrol.     

Ultrastructure evaluation of goat spermatozoa after freezing in a skim milk‐based extender with Trolox supplementation

The aim of this work was to evaluate the in vitro effect of adding Trolox in freezing extender for goat semen. Ejaculates from five bucks were evaluated, and when approved, the samples were pooled, diluted according to experimental groups [Trolox 0 (control), 30, 60 and 120 nmol ml^?1] and frozen in an automated system. Thawed samples (37 °C/30 s) were evaluated for plasma membrane (PMi) and acrosome integrity (Aci), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and sperm kinematics by CASA system. Spermatozoa ultrastructure was evaluated in fresh and post‐thawed semen. No significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed among control and Trolox groups in the analyses of PMi, Aci, MMP and CASA in goat spermatozoa after thawing. Samples of 60 and 120 nmol ml^?1 Trolox groups had a higher percentage of cells that had intact plasma membranes in spermatozoa head than in the other groups, although they did not differ (P > 0.05) before being frozen. A higher percentage (P < 0.05) of spermatozoa with intact mitochondria was observed in fresh semen, control and Trolox 60 nmol ml^?1 groups than in the other groups. Addition of Trolox to skim milk extender at 60 nmol ml^?1 ultrastructurally preserves the plasma membrane and mitochondrial sheath integrity in goat spermatozoa after cryopreservation.     

Semen quality in adult male survivors 5 years after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

The influence of the Wenchuan earthquake on semen quality of adult male survivors is unclear. We investigated the semen quality included 673 male survivors from the worse‐affected counties in the earthquake between Aug 2008 and July 2013. Semen parameters including pH, volume, concentration, motility and morphology were measured according to the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria. Kruskal–Wallis analysis of variance was used to examine the statistical differences between years, and a logistic regression was used to analyse the impacts caused by earthquake on the changes of semen quality. We found the medians (5th and 95th) were 2.5 ml (0.6–5.5) for semen volume, 59.0 × 10⁶ ml^?1 [(13.0–133.0)] × 10⁶ ml^?1 for semen concentration, 46% (13–64%) for sperm progressive motility and 3.0% (0–17.5%) for normal morphology for adult male survivors. Semen concentration, the percentage of sperm progressive motility, total motility and sperm normal morphology were all decreased in the first 3 years, and the differences among years 1, 2 and 3 were significant except the percentage of sperm progressive motility (P < 0.05). The casualties and heavy housing damage caused by earthquake had a negative effect on semen quality. The main findings will provide further diagnosis and therapy basis of male fertility by data, for affected populations in the earthquake.     

Spermicidal activity of Indian seaweeds: an in vitro study

Contraceptive properties of seaweeds are still stands as lacuna; in this context, the screening of in vitro male contraceptive properties of crude ethanolic extract of Indian seaweeds against normal human sperm is carried out. In total, twelve seaweeds were screened for in vitro spermicidal activity. Among these twelve seaweeds, Halimeda gracilis showed 100% inhibition of human spermatozoa at 10 mg ml^?1 concentration in 20 s and its EC₅₀ value was 2.05 mg ml^?1 in 20 s. Further, dose‐ and time‐dependent spermicidal assay revealed that the sperm was completely immobilised for 20 s. Plasma membrane of sperm was damaged due to the exposure of H. gracilis extract. MTT assay with H. gracilis extract showed 88.5% of cytotoxic incidence. H. gracilis extract tested for cytotoxicity against Artemia salina recorded LC₅₀ value of 34.8 μg ml^?1. Phytochemical analysis of H. gracilis extract evidenced the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, proteins and sugars. Results of this study clearly inferred that the synergistic effect of active principles reside within the H. gracilis extract had shown better contraceptive activity.     

Saturated,omega‐6 and omega‐3 dietary fatty acid effects on the characteristics of fresh,frozen–thawed semen and blood parameters in rams

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of several dietary fatty acids (FAs) on semen quality and blood parameters in rams. We gave diet‐supplemented treatments (35 g day^?1 ram^?1) by C16:0 (palm oil), C18:2 [sunflower oil (SO)] and an n‐3 source [fish oil (FO)] to 12 rams, who were fed for 15 weeks during their breeding season. Semen was collected once per week. Semen samples were extended with Tris‐based cryoprotective diluents, then cooled to 5 °C and stored in liquid nitrogen. Positive responses were seen with FO after 4 weeks. The mean prefreezing semen characteristics improved with the intake of FO (P < 0.05). Interestingly, maximum sperm output in FO was achieved 7.5 × 10⁹ when compared to palm oil 5.3 × 10⁹. Rams that received FO had the highest total testosterone concentrations (11.3 ng ml^?1 for FO, 10.8 ng ml^?1 for SO and 10.2 ng ml^?1 for palm oil) during the experiment (P < 0.05). FO also improved the rams' sperm characteristics after thawing (P < 0.05). Although C16:0 is a major saturated FA in ram sperm and all rams have been fed isoenergetic rations, the unique FAs of FO improved fresh semen quality and freezing ability compared to other oils.     

Cryoprotective effect of l‐carnitine on motility,vitality and DNA oxidation of human spermatozoa

Successful cryopreservation for human spermatozoa markedly influences the reproductive outcomes of assisted reproductive technologies. But in spite of its usefulness, cryopreservation significantly decreases sperm quality. l ‐carnitine has been found to improve the quality of spermatozoa in selected cases with male infertility. Here, we examined the efficacy of l ‐carnitine in improving sperm motility and vitality and reducing sperm DNA oxidation during cryopreservation. Semen samples from infertile patients (n = 22) were collected and analysed. Cryopreservation medium supplemented with l ‐carnitine was mixed with the semen at a ratio of 1 : 1 (v/v). The final l ‐carnitine concentration in each cryovial was 0.5 mg ml^?1 per 5 × 10⁶ cell ml^?1. Controls were cryopreserved without addition of l ‐carnitine. After 24 h of cryopreservation, thawed sperm samples were analysed for motility, vitality and DNA oxidation. Sperm vitality was assessed by the eosin–nigrosin test, while sperm DNA oxidation was measured by flow cytometry. Addition of l ‐carnitine significantly improved sperm motility and vitality (P < 0.05) compared with the control. The flow cytometry experiment showed no statistical difference (P > 0.05) in the levels of DNA oxidation between samples and controls. In conclusion, l ‐carnitine improves human sperm motility and vitality, but has no effect on sperm DNA oxidation after cryopreservation.     

Reduced testosterone production in TM3 Leydig cells treated with Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) or Camellia sinensis (tea)

Flavonoids are major compounds of Aspalathus linearis and Camellia sinensis. They are classified as endocrine disruptors and some have been shown to inhibit testosterone production. TM3 Leydig cell cultures were treated with 250–5000 μg mL^?1 A. linearis (unfermented or fermented rooibos) or Camellia sinensis (green or black tea) for 24 h in the absence or presence of 6 mIU/200 μl human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Under nonstimulated conditions, all teas tend to decrease testosterone production (3.9–31.8%). However, under hCG‐stimulation, a significant reduction in testosterone production was observed at all concentrations by both rooibos and tea (16.3–37.9%). MTT assay and phase contrast microscopy, revealed that at 250–1000 μg ml^?1, both plants maintained the viability, proliferation and morphology of the cells, while 5000 μg ml^?1 was cytotoxic to the cells (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the results here demonstrate the anti‐androgenic property of A. linearis and C. sinensis.     

Rat sperm immobilisation effects of a protein from Ricinus communis (Linn.): an in vitro comparative study with nonoxynol‐9

Previous study conducted in our department showed that 50% ethanolic extract of the root of Ricinus communis possess reversible antifertility effect and a 62‐kDa protein (Rp) from this extract is responsible for the antifertility effects. In this study, we compared the spermicidal effect of this Rp with nonoxynol‐9 (N‐9) in vitro. The sperm immobilisation studies showed that 100 μg ml^?1 of Rp was able to immobilise the sperms completely within 30 s. Sperm revival test revealed that the spermicidal effect was irreversible. There was also a significant reduction in sperm viability and hypo‐osmotic swelling in Rp and N‐9 treated groups in comparison with the control. In Rp and N‐9 treated groups, the number of acrosome‐reacted cells was found to be high and also caused agglutination of the spermatozoa, indicating the loss of intactness of the plasma membrane, which was further supported by the significant reduction in the activity of membrane bound 5′‐nucleotidase, acrosomal acrosin. In short, the protein Rp possesses spermicidal activity in vitro and its effects are similar to that of nonoxynol 9.     

Semen quality evaluation in a cohort of 28213 adult males from Sichuan area of south‐west China

The trends in semen quality are conflicting. Although many previous surveys on semen quality indicated a decline, the trends in semen quality in Sichuan area of south‐west China are not clear. We analysed the semen parameters in a cohort of 28 213 adult males close to general population in Sichuan between July 2007 and June 2012, and investigated the changes on semen quality. The semen parameters including pH, volume, concentration, motility, morphology were measured according to the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria. Kruskal–Wallis analysis of variance was used to examine the statistical differences of semen quality between groups. We found that the medians (5th and 95th percentiles) were 2.4 ml (1.0–5.0) for semen volume, 62.0 × 10⁶ ml^?1 (15.0–142.0) for semen concentration, 39% (18–60%) for sperm progressive motility and 10.5% (1.0–34.5%) for normal morphology. In these 5 years, sperm concentration and the percentage of sperm normal morphology were decreased from 66.0 × 10⁶ ml^?1 to 49.0 × 10⁶ ml^?1 and from 13.5% to 4.5%, respectively; among different reproductive history groups, sperm concentration and the percentage of sperm normal morphology were also decreased in these 5 years. And the incidence of azoospermia was increasing. These may imply that there is a decline in semen quality of adult males in Sichuan area.     

Fucosyl neoglycoprotein binds to mouse epididymal spermatozoa and inhibits sperm binding to the egg zona pellucida

Glycan epitopes of cellular glycoconjugates act as versatile biochemical signals, and this sugar coding plays an important role in cell‐to‐cell recognition processes. In this study, our aims were to determine the distribution of sperm receptors with activity for fucosyl‐ and galactosyl glycans and to address whether monosugar neoglycoproteins functionally mimic the binding between zona pellucida (ZP) glycoproteins and spermatozoa. In mouse epididymal spermatozoa with intact acrosomes, fucopyranosyl bovine serum albumin (BSA‐Fuc) bound to the segment of the acrosome, the equatorial segment, and the postacrosome region of the sperm head. Galactosyl BSA (BSA‐Gal) binding activity was similar to that of BSA‐Fuc, but was weaker. In acrosome‐reacted spermatozoa treated with the Ca²⁺ ionophore A23187, BSA‐zuc binding was lost in the apical segment of the acrosome but remained in the equatorial segment and postacrosome regions. BSA‐Gal binding to the equatorial region was increased. In the presence of 2.5 μg ml^?1 BSA‐Fuc, in vitro sperm–ZP binding was significantly decreased, indicating that fucosyl BSA functionally mimics ZP glycoproteins during sperm–egg ZP interactions. At the same concentration, BSA‐Gal was not effective. Fucosyl BSA that efficiently inhibited the sperm–ZP binding can mimic the ZP glycoconjugate and has potential for use as a sperm fertility control agent in mouse.     

Antioxidant effect of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and mate tea (Ilex paraguensys) on quality,lipid peroxidation and DNA oxidation of cryopreserved boar epididymal spermatozoa

In this study, we investigated the protective ability of the addition of two antioxidant herb extracts, mate tea and lemon balm, on boar epididymal frozen–thawed spermatozoa quality. Testes from mature boars were collected at local slaughterhouse, and sperm samples from epididymis were recovered by flushing. Spermatozoa were cryopreserved in lactose–egg yolk buffer supplemented with various concentrations of lemon balm and mate tea (0, 2.5, 5 and 10 g l^?1) using the straw‐freezing procedure. Motion parameters, acrosome and plasma membrane integrity, lipoperoxidation levels and DNA oxidative damage (8‐hydroxy‐2′‐deoxyguanosine base lesion) were evaluated. There were no differences among experimental groups with regard to motility characteristics, viability, acrosome and plasma membrane integrity; however, the highest concentration of lemon balm produced significant (P < 0.05) improvement in curvilinear trajectory, straightness and amplitude of lateral head displacement after thawing. The supplementation of freezing extender with mate tea and lemon balm reduced sperm lipid membrane peroxidation, and only mate tea protected DNA against oxidative damage during cryopreservation at 120 min post‐thawing (P < 0.05). Mate tea experimental extender at concentration of 10 g l^?1 showed the lowest percentage of sperm oxidised DNA and malondialdehyde generation; thus, mate tea is a potential candidate such as antioxidant compound on boar sperm cryopreservation medium.     

The micronutrient supplements,zinc sulphate and folic acid,did not ameliorate sperm functional parameters in oligoasthenoteratozoospermic men

We investigated the effects of folic acid and zinc sulphate supplementation on the improvement of sperm function in subfertile oligoasthenoteratozoospermic (OAT) men. Eighty‐three OAT men participated in a 16‐week intervention randomised, double‐blind clinical trial with daily treatment of folic acid (5 mg day^?1) and zinc sulphate (220 mg day^?1), or placebo. Before and after treatment, semen and blood samples were obtained for determining sperm concentration, motility, and morphology, sperm viability, sperm mitochondrial function, sperm chromatin status using toluidine blue, aniline blue, acridine orange and chromomycin A₃ staining; and semen and blood folate, zinc, B₁₂, total antioxidant capacity ( TAC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations. Sperm concentration (×10⁶ ml^?1) increased in subfertile men receiving the combined treatment of folic acid and zinc sulphate and also in the group receiving only folic acid treatment; however, it was not statistically significant (P = 0.056 and P = 0.05, respectively). Sperm chromatin integrity (%) increased significantly in subfertile men receiving only zinc sulphate treatment (P = 0.048). However, this improvement in sperm quality was not significant after adjusting placebo effect. This study showed that zinc sulphate and folic acid supplementation did not ameliorate sperm quality in infertile men with severely compromised sperm parameters, OAT. Male infertility is a multifactorial disorder, and also nutritional factors play an important role in results of administration of supplementation on sperm parameters. However, these results should be confirmed by multiple studies in larger populations of OAT men.     

Semen quality and reproductive endocrinal function related to blood lead levels in infertile painters

Lead causes male reproductive impairment among painters, but information is still limited. Therefore, the effect of lead on semen quality and reproductive endocrinal function in those patients was investigated. A case series of 27 infertile painters were subjected to semen analysis, measuring of blood lead level (PbB) and serum levels of endocrinal parameters including follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH), testosterone (T) and prolactin (PRL). Significantly lower sperm count and motility were found in those with duration of exposure (≥15 years), but no significant difference was found for PbB and serum levels of FSH, LH, PRL and T. A significant negative correlation between PbB and spermatic count and motility was observed, while there was no significant correlation between PbB and all endocrinal parameters. Patients with PbB ≥ 20 μg dl^?1 showed a significant decrease in sperm motility and increase in testosterone alone among all measured hormones. But the observed decrease in sperm count did not reach a significant level. It is concluded that infertile painters are at risk of lead‐related influence on semen quality, especially sperm motility and increased testosterone level without significant affection of other reproductive endocrinal parameters.