结直肠癌性梗阻的外科治疗: 附108例报告

目的　探讨结直肠癌性梗阻的治疗原则。方法　回顾性分析 10年间我院收治的 10 8例结肠梗阻患者的临床资料和治疗方法 :右半结肠癌 3 0例中 2 8例行一期切除吻合 ,1例行姑息性手术 ,1例未手术。左半结肠和直肠癌 78例中行一期切除 ( 5 6例 ) (Ⅰ期或Ⅱ期吻合分别 3 2 ,2 4例 )或二期切除11例 ,6例行姑息性手术 ,5例未手术。结果　伴结肠梗阻的结直肠癌多见于Duke′sC和D期 ( 5 9例 )的中、低分化腺癌 ( 65例 )。手术并发症发生率为 2 7.3 % ( 2 6例 46例次 ) ,以感染性并发症为主 ( 3 5 /46) ,吻合口漏 4例。围手术期死亡率为 7.8%。手术治疗患者的 5年生存率为 2 8.4% ,未手术者 5年生存率为 0 % (P <0 .0 1)。肿瘤I期 ,II期切除 5年生存率分别为 3 3 .3 % ,9.0 % (P <0 .0 5 )。肿瘤一期切除后行一期 ,二期吻合手术的 5年生存率无显著性差异 (P >0 .0 5 )。结论　对伴结肠梗阻的结直肠癌 ,手术应及时并遵循个体化原则 ,创造条件 ,要力争一期手术切除肿瘤 ,解除梗阻 ,但切除后行I期或II期吻合对预后无影响。     

肝门部胆管癌的外科治疗及预后分析(附61例报告)

目的探讨高位胆管癌的外科手术及影响预后的因素,以提高对高位胆管癌的认识。方法回顾性分析2002年1月至2007年12月61例高位胆管癌的外科治疗的临床资料。结果61例高位胆管癌按Bismuth—eorlitte分型,Ⅰ型5例,Ⅱ型12例,Ⅲa型10例,Ⅲb型8例,Ⅳ型26例。根治切除31例,姑息手术13例,内引流13例,PTCD4例。根治切除组平均中位生存期29．3个月,其1,3,5年生存率分别为75％,39．3％,3．6％。姑息手术组平均中位生存期18．9个月,1,3,5年生存率分别为72．7％,9．1％,0％。内引流组平均中位生存期4．5个月,1,3,5年生存率分别为20％,0％,0％。根治手术组生存率高于姑息手术组（x^2=14．20,P=0．0002）。姑息手术组术后生存率高于内引流组（x^2=4．68,P=0．0305）。多元回归分析显示,切缘阳性,肿瘤分期,淋巴结转移是影响预后的独立因素。结论外科根治手术是治疗肝门部胆管癌唯一有效的手段。     

Nevin Ⅳ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌62例的外科治疗

目的　总结NevinⅣ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌的外科治疗经验 ,探讨提高晚期胆囊癌生存率的方法。方法　回顾性分析 1993年 1月至 2 0 0 2年 12月间经手术治疗并有病理诊断的 6 2例NevinⅣ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌的临床资料 ,分析不同手术方式与预后之间的关系。结果　 6 2例中NevinⅣ期 17例 ,Ⅴ期4 5例。 30例行剖腹探查术 ,32例切除胆囊 ,切除率 5 2 % (32 /6 2 ) ,其中行根治性切除术 7例 ,扩大根治术 10例 ,姑息性切除术 15例 ,根治率 2 7% (17/6 2 )。根治性切除并发症发生率为 35 % (6 /17)。 1、3、5年生存率根治性切除分别为 6 1%、31%和 11% ,姑息性切除分别为 2 7%、13%、0 (P <0 0 1) ;剖腹探查术后 1年生存率仅为 3% ,3年以上生存率为 0。结论　对NevinⅣ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌应进行积极的手术治疗 ,根治术或扩大根治术是提高患者长期生存率的有效手段 ,姑息性切除术也能改善患者生活质量 ,延长生存期。     

晚期胃癌姑息性胃切除的临床价值

目的　比较晚期胃癌姑息性胃切除 (palliativegastrectomy ,PG)与非切除手术 (unresectableoperation ,UO)的临床病理及预后 ,探究姑息性胃切除治疗不能根治的晚期胃癌的临床价值。　方法共有 95例不能根治的晚期胃癌患者施行了手术 ,其中 6 4例行姑息性胃切除 ,31例行姑息性非切除手术 ,比较姑息性胃切除与非切除组的临床病理及预后。　结果　 2组患者年龄、性别构成比差异无显著性意义。瘤体较大、浸润度为T4 以及TNM分期较晚所占比例在UO组高于PG组 (P <0 0 1) ,腹膜播散、肝转移、淋巴结转移、肿瘤部位 2组差异无显著性意义 (P >0 0 5 )。PG组 1、2年生存率为48 1%、2 3 1% ,UO组 1年生存率为 13 5 % (P <0 0 1)。　结论　对于晚期不能根治的胃癌患者 ,即使存在有腹膜播散、肝转移、远处淋巴结转移、周围脏器侵犯等 ,姑息性胃切除可以改善其预后。     

肝门部胆管癌112例外科治疗

目的比较不同外科治疗方法对肝门部胆管癌生存率的影响,并探讨与预后相关的因素。方法回顾性分析1984年1月至2005年2月间收治的112例肝门部胆管癌的临床资料。结果15例行根治性切除术,其1、2、3年的生存率分别为86.7%、53.3%、20.0%。35例行非根治性切除术,其1、2、3年的生存率分别为45.7%、8.5%、2.9%。40例行姑息性手术引流,其6、12、18个月的生存率分别为57.5%、20.0%、2.5%。22例行ERCP+支架治疗,其6个月的生存率为59.1%(无超过1年者)。术后生存期与是否行根治性手术、切缘残癌情况、肿瘤分期、组织类型、淋巴结转移情况有关,有淋巴结转移时“就近转移”较常见。结论根治性切除加淋巴结清扫可获得较长的生存期。准确的术前评估,选择合适的手术方式,努力提高手术切除率是外科治疗的关键。     

肝门部胆管癌112例外科治疗

目的 比较不同外科治疗方法对肝门部胆管癌生存率的影响，并探讨与预后相关的因素。方法回顾性分析1984年1月至2005年2月间收治的112例肝门部胆管癌的临床资料。结果15例行根治性切除术，其1、2、3年的生存率分别为86．7％、53．3％、20．0％。35例行非根治性切除术，其1、2、3年的生存率分别为45.7％、8.5％、2．9％。40例行姑息性手术引流，其6、12、18个月的生存率分别为57．5％、20.0％、2．5％。22例行ERCP＋支架治疗，其6个月的生存率为59．1％（无超过1年者）。术后生存期与是否行根治性手术、切缘残癌情况、肿瘤分期、组织类型、淋巴结转移情况有关，有淋巴结转移时“就近转移”较常见。结论根治性切除加淋巴结清扫可获得较长的生存期。准确的术前评估，选择合适的手术方式，努力提高手术切除率是外科治疗的关键。     

肝叶切除术在肝门胆管癌手术中应用的价值

目的探讨联合肝叶部分切除在肝门部胆管癌根治术中的应用价值.方法对42例行手术治疗的肝门部胆管癌患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析.结果42例患者中有34例行肿瘤切除术,其中局部切除15例,右半肝切除8例,左半肝切除3例,左半肝切除联合尾叶切除4例,左肝外叶切除联合尾叶切除1例,方叶切除3例,总体手术切除率为81%.其中25例根治性切除,包括8例局部切除,及17例联合肝叶部分切除,根治性切除率为60%.根治性切除组的中位生存期28个月,姑息性手术组的中位生存期14个月,根治性切除术的1年生存率为90%,2年生存率73%,4年生存率28%,姑息性手术1年生存率为57%,2年生存率27%.结论根治性切除的生存率比姑息性手术显著提高,联合肝叶部分切除能明显提高根治性手术的切除率.     

甲状腺转移癌35例的临床特点及诊治分析

目的 探讨甲状腺转移癌的临床特点、诊断、治疗方式及预后.方法 回顾性分析1958至2010年收治的35例甲状腺转移癌患者的临床资料,均经细胞学或组织学病理确诊.结果 35例患者中,除了3例原发肿瘤不明外,其余原发肿瘤依次为肺癌16例、食管癌9例、乳腺癌2例、肾癌2例、下咽癌1例、鼻咽癌1例、软腭腺样囊性癌1例.其中12例以甲状腺转移癌为首发症状,其余23例从诊断原发肿瘤到发现甲状腺转移癌,时间间隔为0～168个月,中位时间为24个月,其中有6例时间间隔＞3年.所有患者均经病理学证实,其中细针吸取细胞学诊断7例,手术标本组织病理学诊断24例,两种手段结合使用诊断4例.发现甲状腺转移癌后,全部患者的中位生存期为11.5个月,1、3、5年生存率分别为43.8%、27.8%和11.9%.有28例患者接受手术治疗,7例接受非手术治疗,手术组整体生存率明显高于非手术组(P＜0.01).在合并颈淋巴结转移患者中,接受甲状腺切除合并颈清扫组的中位生存期与接受单纯甲状腺切除组相比差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 甲状腺转移癌临床少见,细针吸取细胞学可以有效的诊断甲状腺转移癌.甲状腺转移癌是恶性肿瘤的晚期表现,预后较差.     

根治性手术治疗肝门部胆管癌效果及预后分析

目的探讨根治性手术治疗肝门部胆管癌(HCCA)效果及其对预后的影响。方法选取2007年1月至2015年1月本院收治的HCCA患者111例,根据不同的治疗方式分为姑息性手术组36例、根治性手术组42例和经皮肝穿刺胆道引流(PTCD)组33例,对比三组术后并发症情况和预后情况。结果根治性手术组术后并发症发生率为57.14%,姑息性手术组术后并发症发生率为30.56%,PTCD组术后并发症发生率为48.48%,根治性手术组术后并发症发生率明显高于姑息性手术组(P0.05);根治性手术组术后1年、2年、3年生存率分别为92.86%、35.71%、0;姑息性手术组术后1年、2年、3年生存率为69.44%、11.11%、0;PTCD组术后1年、2年、3年生存率为21.21%、0、0,根治性手术组1年、2年生存率明显高于姑息性手术组和PTCD组(P0.05)。结论根治性手术能够明显提高患者生存率,可作为HCCA的有效治疗方法。     

进展期肝门部胆管癌的扩大切除——肝切除合并肝动脉及门静脉切除重建手术的临床应用

目的：探讨肝门部胆管癌病例的外科治疗手段,分析肝脏切除同时进行门静脉或肝动脉重建在进展期病例中的应用。方法：回顾性分析解放军总医院肝胆外科2007年1月-2010年12月手术治疗的104例肝门部胆管癌患者的病例资料。结果：104例患者均行手术探查,手术根治性切除51例（49．O％）,其中合并肝门部血管切除重建13例,姑息性切除25例（24O％）,引流手术28例（26．9％）。根治手术组中位生存期27个月,姑息性切除组中位生存期16个月,引流组中位生存期11个月。根治性手术组1年生存率76％,3年生存率51％,5年生存率38％;姑息性手术组1年生存率61％,3年生存率35％,5年生存率21％;引流手术组1年生存率33％,3年生存率2．1％,5年生存率为0。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.