Molecular typing of Vibrio cholerae O1 isolates from Thailand by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis

The aim of the present study was to genotypically characterize Vibrio cholerae strains isolated from cholera patients in various provinces of Thailand. Two hundred and forty V. cholerae O1 strains, isolated from patients with cholera during two outbreaks, i.e. March 1999-April 2000 and December 2001-February 2002, in Thailand, were genotypically characterized by NotI digestion and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). In total, 17 PFGE banding patterns were found and grouped into four Dice-coefficient clusters (PF-I to PF-IV). The patterns of V. cholerae O1, El Tor reference strains from Australia, Peru, Romania, and the United States were different from the patterns of reference isolates from Asian countries, such as Bangladesh, India, and Thailand, indicating a close genetic relationship or clonal origin of the isolates in the same geographical region. The Asian reference strains, regardless of their biotypes and serogroups (classical O1, El Tor O1, O139, or O151), showed a genetic resemblance, but had different patterns from the strains collected during the two outbreaks in Thailand. Of 200 Ogawa strains collected during the first outbreak in Thailand, two patterns (clones)--PF-I and PF-II--predominated, while other isolates caused sporadic cases and were grouped together as pattern PF-III. PF-II also predominated during the second outbreak, but none of the 40 isolates (39 Inaba and 1 Ogawa) of the second outbreak had the pattern PF-I; a minority showed a new pattern--PF-IV, and others caused single cases, but were not groupable. In summary, this study documented the sustained appearance of the pathogenic V. cholerae O1 clone PF-II, the disappearance of clones PF-I and PF-III, and the emergence of new pathogenic clones during the two outbreaks of cholera. Data of the study on molecular characteristics of indigenous V. cholerae clinical isolates have public-health implications, not only for epidemic tracing of existing strains but also for the recognition of strains with new genotypes that may emerge in the future.     

Molecular epidemiology ofSalmonella enteritidis

Sixteen strains ofSalmonella enteritidis isolated in 1991 from 13 unrelated poultry-associated sources, 7 strains from 2 community outbreaks, and 18 human sporadic isolates were investigated by phage typing, analysis of rRNA gene restriction patterns (ribotyping) and plasmid profiles. Four different phage types and 10SphI patterns were found, whereas plasmids were identical in all but 4 isolates. Only one ribotype (RT A) occurred among both human and avian strains. This particular ribotype was also responsible for the two outbreaks investigated, suggesting that such strains may be of special significance for the increase ofS. enteritidis infections.     

Hospital infections in Spain. I. Staphylococcus aureus (1978-91).

This study was undertaken to determine the distribution of phage types of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from hospital outbreaks or sporadic cases received in our laboratory during the past 14 years. The records for 15,803 isolates from 55 Spanish hospitals have been analysed. In relation to sporadic isolates we have been able to detect the predominance of phage group I and non-typable staphylococcal strains. Since 1989, we have observed a considerable increase in hospital infection caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains which we could differentiate in to two groups; one belonging to phage group III (6/47/54/75/77/84/85) and other groups of nontypable strains which could be classified as phage group I-III after heat treatment (29/77/84) and with similar patterns by reverse typing (6/47/53/54/75/83A/84/85/W57/1030/18042). During 1990 and 1991, these strains have extended widely to at least six different autonomous regions creating an epidemic situation in Spain.     

Phage type/biotype groups of Salmonella typhimurium in Scotland 1974-6: variation during spread of epidemic clones.

Biotyping by the scheme of Duguid et al. (1975) of 2010 cultures of Salmonella typhimurium received by the Scottish Salmonella Reference Laboratory in 1974--6, the definitive phage types of which were known, revealed 137 different phage type/biotype groups. Four major epidemic clones, comprising 52% of the cultures, were recognized: 1/2a, 49/26a, 56/17g and 141/9f. The sources of each of these four groups of strains were primarily bovine (587 cultures) and human (361), suggesting a close association between infections in the two hosts. Epidemiological evidence showed that most of the outbreaks were caused by cultures of a single phage type/biotype, suggesting that both phage typing and biotyping characters were usually stable in the course of spread of epidemic strains. Thirty-two of the 63 phage types contained strains of more than one biotype. Cultures from 11 of the phage types were of two or more closely related biotypes and those from 21 others were of unrelated or distantly related biotypes. The combined use of phage typing and biotyping made it possible to detect occasional variations in the phage type or biotype in epidemic clones during their spread, e.g. phage type 49 to 204, 56 to 193, 141 to 193 and biotype 2a to 10a, 9f to 9bf, or 9cf, 26a to 26f.     

Insertion sequence IS200 fingerprinting of Salmonella typhi: an assessment of epidemiological applicability.

When Pst I-generated digests of genomic DNA from each of the type strains of 49 of the Vi phage types of Salmonella typhi were probed with a PCR-amplified IS200 gene probe, all strains were found to possess at least 11 IS200 elements carried on fragments in the range 24.2-1.2 kb. Fourteen fingerprints were identified but two patterns designated IS200Sty1 and IS200Sty2 predominated. In one strain, a plasmid-mediated IS200 element was identified. When IS200 fingerprinting was applied to epidemiologically-unrelated strains of S. typhi isolated in Ecuador, 3 patterns were identified in 10 strains belonging to 9 different phage types. It is concluded that Vi phage typing remains the method of choice for the primary differentiation of S. typhi but that IS200 fingerprinting may be of limited use in laboratories which do not have access to phage typing.     

Occurrence of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis phage types in the Slovak Republic

Phage typing of 741 isolates of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis from the slovak Republic in 1995 has been carried out using the scheme of Ward and colleagues (1987). 202 strains (51 isolated from food) were from 9 outbreaks, 536 isolates were from sporadic cases and 3 isolates were from nosocomial infections of new-born babies. 704 isolates (95%) from all sources were typeable and belonged to 7 different phage types (PTs). PT8 was the phage type most frequently identified (72.6%). Other epidemiologically relevant phage types were PT2 (8.5%), 4 (7.9%) and 1 (4.2%). With an incidence of 1.3--0.1% isolates of PTs 21, 6, 9 were found. 26 (3.5%) isolates were designated RDNC and 11 (1.5%) were untypeable.     

Epidemiological analysis of Salmonella enterica Enteritidis isolates in Japan by phage-typing and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.

Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis isolates of phage types (PTs) PT1, PT4, PT13a and PT22 derived from sporadic cases and outbreaks of food poisoning in Japan during 1994 and 1995 were analysed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). While PT1 strains from 5 different outbreaks showed 14 PFGE patterns, 5 PFGE patterns were observed among PT4 isolates from 5 different outbreaks and 6 independent isolates from imported chicken. Interestingly, 8 out of 9 PT4 strains associated with foreign travel to Southeast Asia were indistinguishable in PFGE pattern from 5 independent isolates of imported chicken from England. Although both PT13a and PT22 were first reported in Japan in 1994, PT22 showed various PFGE patterns compared to PT13a which had the same pattern within an outbreak, unlike PT1. These results could indicate that multiple clonal lines of PT1 and PT22 had already spread while relatively fewer clonal lines of PT4 and PT13a might exist in Japan.     

Genome fingerprinting of Salmonella typhi by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis for subtyping common phage types.

The genomic DNA of 39 strains of Salmonella typhi isolated from local residents and patients who had visited countries in the Asian region was analysed for restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP). Pulsed-field gel electrophoretic (PFGE) analysis of Xba I- and Spe I-generated genomic restriction fragments established 22 PFGE types whereas phage typing differentiated the 39 isolates into 9 distinct phage types. This study showed that PFGE is more discriminatory than phage typing as it is capable of subtyping S. typhi strains of the same phage types. Genetic relatedness among the isolates was determined. Seven major clusters were identified at SABs of > 0.80 and the remaining 13 isolates were distributed into minor clusters which were related at SABs of less than 0.80. In conclusion, PFGE analysis in conjunction with distance matrix analysis served as a useful tool for delineating common S. typhi phage types of diverse origins from different geographical locales and separated in time.     

Phage types of Salmonella typhi isolated in Malaysia over the 10-year period 1970-1979.

The pattern of phage types of 2553 strains of Salmonella typhi isolated over the 10-year period 1970-9 was studied. During the period 29 different phage types were encountered, not including the categories of ''untypable strains'', ''degraded Vi-strains'' and Vi negative strains. For the period as a whole, the commonest phage types encountered were A (20.9%), E1 (14.8%), D1 (10.3%), degraded Vi positive strains (10.3%), untypable Vi strains (7.3%), C4 (7.1%), D2 (4.4%), E2 (3.9%) and type 25 (2.6%). There were phage types which appeared in the early years of the period and then disappeared (types B2, D9 and D1-N). Others only made their appearance in recent years (K1 and 53). Notable differences were also seen in the predilection of some phage types for certain geographical areas.     

广州地区小川型霍乱弧菌的脉冲场凝胶电泳分析

目的分析小川型霍乱弧菌的致病相关基因型,探讨广州地区小川型霍乱流行趋势和规律。方法采用多重PCR方法检测小川型菌株的4种致病相关基因,应用脉冲场凝胶电泳技术（PFGE）对菌株进行分子分型,对PFGE图谱采用分子分型软件BioNumerics Version 4.0进行聚类分析。结果广州地区小川型菌株中存在3种致病相关基因型,即A型、B型和C型,20%感染者分离株为致病相关基因A型,80%环境分离株为致病相关基因C型。25株霍乱弧菌分为14个不同的PFGE型,归为3个聚类群（Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ群）。每一次小川型暴发中分离的菌株PFGE克隆型相同或相近,而散发病例分离株与暴发株的PFGE型有些相同,有的差异较大。环境小川型菌株中存在PFGE克隆型的多样性,部分环境株与感染者分离株具有相近的PFGE型。结论应建立广州地区霍乱菌株的PFGE分子分型数据库,加强霍乱的预防、控制和预警。     

多位点酶电泳法在新疆伤寒沙门氏菌分类和群体遗传学研究中的应用

采用多位点酶电泳（ＭＥＥ）法对新疆近１１年分离的１５４株伤寒沙门氏菌进行部分多位点酶基因型分类和群体遗传学研究。共测定分析７种代谢酶。研究结果表明,上述菌株共分为６９个电泳型（ＥＴ）,分属１０个克隆系（ＣＬａ～ＣＬｊ）,其中３０株爆发菌株分属２１个ＥＴｓ,３个ＣＬ（ＣＬｅ、ｆ和ｊ）,以ＥＴ１７、２０、２１、２４、２６和２７为主,占６１．３０％,ＣＬｆ为优势克隆系,菌株占９５．００％;７４株散发菌株     

表型和分子分型技术在霍乱弧菌研究中的应用

目的分析1999～2005年广州地区O1群和O139群霍乱弧菌代表菌株的致病基因型和PFGE型别,确定霍乱菌株的分子流行病学特征和同源性,研究本地霍乱弧菌的分子特性。方法采用多重PCR方法检测霍乱弧菌的4种致病相关基因,采用限制性内切酶Not I,以脉冲场凝胶电泳技术(PFGE)对菌株进行分子分型,采用分型处理软件BioNumerics Version对PFGE图谱做聚类分析。结果本地霍乱弧菌代表株中存在3种致病基因型(A、B、C型),病例分离的霍乱弧菌多为A型基因,而环境分离的霍乱弧菌则多为C型和B型。总共96株霍乱弧菌分为60个不同的PFGE型,带型范围:8 kb-650 kb。相同或相近的PFGE型(相差1～3条带)存在于多次霍乱暴发疫情分离株中、环境分离霍乱与临床株之间、输入病例与本地病例分离霍乱弧菌间,不同的PFGE克隆型(4～6带及以上)的流行病学联系也较远。结论将致病基因分型、PFGE型与流行病学资料结合,揭示了本地霍乱菌株从受污染的珠江水及水产品传递给人并引起霍乱暴发、散发的特征,提示开展霍乱菌株PFGE分子分型监测及加强地区间合作的必要性和急迫性。     

Phage-typing of Vero-cytotoxin (VT) producing Escherichia coli O157 isolated in the United Kingdom

Vero-cytotoxin (VT) producing Escherichia coli serogroup O157 have been isolated from patients with diarrhoea, haemorrhagic colitis (HC) and haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS). A phage-typing scheme developed in Canada has been used to type 155 VT+ E. coli O157 serogroup isolated from sporadic infections in the UK since 1983, and 48 strains from HC or HUS outbreaks. Twelve phage types were identified of which three, types 49, 51 and 52, have not been found in North America. All strains carried a 60 x 10(6) plasmid and most VT1+VT2+ strains also had a 5 x 10(6) plasmid coding for colicin D production. The majority of strains producing both VT1 and VT2 belonged to phage type 1, or the related types 4, 8 and 14. Most strains producing only VT2 belonged to types 2 or 49. Four outbreaks were included in the survey. Three had strains of a single phage type while strains from the fourth outbreak were more variable. The distribution of phage types throughout the UK showed no marked geographical variations.     

rRNA gene restriction patterns and biotypes of Shigella sonnei.

Shigella sonnei is a major agent of diarrhoeal disease in developed as well as in developing countries. Several phenotypic methods to define strain differences have been applied to this species of Shigella including, more recently, analysis of extrachromosomal and chromosomal DNA. In this study, 432 endemic and epidemic strains isolated between 1975 and 1991 in Italy, France and Switzerland were submitted to rRNA gene restriction pattern analysis, after digestion of whole-cell DNA by Hinc II, and to concomitant biotyping. Thirteen ribotypes, H1 to H13, and five biotypes, a, d, e, f, g, were detected. Ninety-five percent of the sporadic strains were assigned to ribotypes H1 to H4, which could be subtyped, except for H4, in different biotypes. Strains from each of seven different outbreaks had indistinguishable ribotype-biotype patterns. In contrast, 65 strains, isolated in Sicily in 1980 over an extended period of apparently epidemic increase of isolations and which had previously been considered to be a single bacterial clone on the basis of resistance pattern and phage type, were found to belong to two different and scarcely related ribotypes. Ribotyping and biochemical subtyping appear to be a useful epidemiological tool in studies on the circulation and distribution of strains of S. sonnei.     

江苏省M1型伤寒沙门氏菌的分子流行病学特征

选择江苏省各地１９８８～１９９７年分离到的２６株Ｍ１型伤寒菌进行ＡＰ－ＰＣＲ分析。结果２６株Ｍ１型伤寒菌被引物２２７３２、２２７３３和２２７３４共同划分为７种不同的基因型别，将菌株的基因型别与流行病学资料分析相结合，发现在江苏省伤寒呈现高强度流行的８０年代末至９０年代初，Ｍ１型菌株呈现高度的基因多态性表现，而在江苏省伤寒流行强度较低的近几年，Ｍ１型菌株的基因多态性表现则明显减弱。     

中国C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌脉冲场凝胶电泳分析

目的对中国C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌分离株进行脉冲场凝胶电泳（PFGE）分析，了解安徽省C群流行性脑脊髓膜炎（流脑）暴发菌株及国内C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌菌株的分子流行病学特征。方法212株C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌菌株分离自流脑患者、密切接触者和健康人群鼻咽部，包括安徽省C群流脑菌株48株，其中38株与C群流脑暴发相关。脉冲场凝胶电泳选用NheI限制性内切酶，聚类分析选用BioNumerics软件。结果212株C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌菌株共分为43个PFGE带型，命名为AH1～AH43，AH1是中国C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌主要的带型，占69．3％（”=147），分布于11个省市。安徽省48株C群菌株共分为3个PFGE型别（AH1、AH2、AH3），45株（93．8％）为AH1型。安徽省38株与C群流脑暴发相关的菌株中，37株（97．4％）为AH1型。全国53株流脑患者分离菌株中，AH1型菌株占67．9％（36／53）；121株流脑病例密切接触者分离菌株中，AH1型占71．9％（87／121），38株健康人群鼻咽部分离菌株中，AH1型占63．2％（24／38）。结论AH1型C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌是中国目前C群流脑流行的主要克隆群，安徽省C群流脑暴发是由AH1型C群脑膜炎奈瑟菌引起的，已在全国呈扩散流行的趋势。     

An additional set of phages to characterize epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains from Spain (1989-92).

In recent years, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates in Spain have increased dramatically; in 1986 there were only 1.2% MRSA amongst all nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus (SA) isolates, by 1989 this percentage had risen to 44% in some hospital causing a very serious epidemic situation in the country. We have characterized these isolates by direct, reverse and Fisk phage typing and we have also looked for an additional local set of phages to help us to differentiate these strains. We have been able to differentiate an epidemic strain from other MRSA strains which cause sporadic hospital outbreaks, and we have also distinguished between some variants of the epidemic strain.     

Salmonellosis in Indonesia: phage type distribution of Salmonella typhi.

The distribution of phage types was studied among 577 strains of Salmonella typhi from Indonesia. Chemotype, colicinogeny, and tetrathionate reductase activity were also studied for most of these strains. The current phage type formula for Java was determined to be: A, D2, D6, E1a, E2, M1, and 46, but two other large groups of strains were also found, I + IV and degraded Vi+ strains. Significant differences in S. typhi strain distributions were noted between two localities on Java with respect to phage type and tetrathionate reductase activity. Comparisons were made with past phage typing studies in Jakarta as well as with more recent studies in other parts of south-east Asia. Phage types A, D1, D2, and E1 persisted at a rather steady level in Jakarta for 28 years. Evidence was found for epidemiological links to European and Asian areas. Antibiotic resistance among these Indonesian S. typhi strains was rare.     

A comparison of strains of Serratia marcescens isolated from neonates with strains isolated from sporadic and epidemic infections in adults

As a result of the increased number of outbreaks of Serratia marcescens in special care baby units in the UK, a study was undertaken to compare strains isolated from outbreaks of neonatal infection with strains isolated from outbreaks of infections in adults and with isolates from sporadic infections. None of the biochemical, serological, bacteriological markers examined could distinguish the three groups of strains. When considered as groups there was no difference in the ability of the strains to survive desiccation on hands. Strains from neonatal and sporadic infections were more sensitive to antibiotics than adult epidemic strains. The feature common to all of the neonatal strains tested was the ability to agglutinate one or more species of erythrocytes in the presence of mannose. Only one strain in each of the other two groups possessed mannose resistant haemagglutinins.     

Persistent and transient clones of Salmonella typhimurium of phage type 141 recognized by biotyping

Among the 81 cultures of Salmonella typhimurium of phage type 141 examined, 72 had been isolated from Sheffield incidents in 1984-5 and 9 were Scottish isolates from 1986-7. All of these cultures from diverse sources belonged to primary biotype 31; 79 were of full biotype 31beg and 2 anaerogenic cultures were of full biotype 31begj. This is the first known occasion on which an epidemic strain of S. typhimurium of phage type/biotype 141/31beg has been implicated in outbreaks of human or animal infection in the UK. Because previous epidemic strains of S. typhimurium of phage type 141 in the UK belonged to biotypes 1f and 9f which are phylogenetically unrelated to biotype 31beg, the likely origin of this most recent epidemic S. typhimurium strain of phage type/biotype 141/31beg is discussed.