慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重期痰细菌培养与肺功能关系探讨

目的　探讨慢性阻塞性肺疾病 (COPD)急性加重期患者的痰细菌学特征以及细菌感染与肺功能损伤的关系。　方法　对在我院就诊痰培养阳性的 77例急性期COPD患者进行肺功能测试 ,并根据肺功能测试结果将患者分为三个期。　结果　 77例痰菌培养阳性患者根据细菌培养结果分为 5组 ,A组为G+ 球菌 ,B组为除C组以外的G 杆菌 ,C组为肠杆菌和假单孢菌 ,D组为霉菌 ,E组为D组合并前A或C组中任何一类。Ⅰ期 (FEV1 ≥ 5 0 %预计值 ) 2 0例中 10例为A组 ,4例为B组 ,6例为C组 ;Ⅱ期 (30 % 相似文献   

慢性支气管炎急性感染加重期细菌学与肺功能的关系

慢性支气管炎表现为咳嗽与咳痰,发病期出现气道阻塞,最终形成COPD。COPD在加重期50％～80％痰培养可检出病原菌,以往研究证实急性感染加重的原因主要是肺炎双球菌,非典型流感嗜血杆菌以及卡它莫拉氏菌,对数例COPD患者随访15～20年,发现在感染加重时,随着肺功能损伤加重细菌则以肠杆菌科和假单胞菌多见,因此,作者认为在慢支发病期除常见的3种病原菌外,更应注意G~-菌,如肠杆菌科及假单胞菌,而且检出率与肺功能下降呈正相关。 材料与方法 随机选择211例患者,112例痰培养阳性。实施肺功能检测,按肺功能FEV_(1.0)指标将重度COPD分为Ⅲ期,Ⅰ期FEV_(1.0)≥50％预计值,Ⅱ期为35％相似文献   

COPD患者急性加重期细菌感染状况与肺功能的关系

感染是导致慢性阻塞性肺疾病(COPD)急性发作及病情加重的重要原因.为探讨COPD急性加重期细菌感染状况及其与肺功能下降的关系,我们对262例COPD急性加重期患者行痰细菌培养,并对其中191例痰菌阳性患者行肺功能检测,现报告如下. 资料与方法:观察对象为262例COPD急性加重期患者.其中男性167例,女性95例,年龄在36～80岁.均符合中华医学会制定的COPD诊治规范.所有患者均做痰细菌培养,并将病原菌分为3组,1组为肺炎链球菌与G+菌,2组为流感嗜血杆菌与卡他莫拉氏菌,3组为假单胞菌及肠杆菌属. 采用美国产Sprolab型肺功能仪对痰菌阳性患者进行肺功能检测.并按FEV1情况将COPD分为Ⅲ期.Ⅰ期FEV1>50%,Ⅱ期FEV130%～49%,Ⅲ期FEV1<35%.     

慢性阻塞性肺疾病稳定期下呼吸道细菌定植与疾病分级、评估的相关性

目的探讨慢性阻塞性肺病(COPD)患者稳定期下呼吸道细菌定植状况与肺功能分级、症状评估和急性加重频率的关系。方法入选中、重度COPD稳定期患者60例,痰液标本行细菌半定量培养,并行血常规、血气分析、肺功能检测及CAT、SGRQ生活质量问卷调查。结果 60例患者中,痰细菌半定量培养≥+++者为30%(18/60),主要定植细菌为副流感嗜血杆菌、铜绿假单胞菌、肺炎链球菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、流感嗜血杆菌;肺功能分级:1级0例,2级24例(40%),3级24例(40%),4级12例(20%);症状和急性加重频率分组:A组6例,B组18例,C组0例,D组36例;存在细菌定植的患者与无细菌定植者在每年急性发作次数、肺功能、SGRQ评分和CAT评分差别有统计学意义(P0.05);稳定期细菌定植与急性加重次数、肺功能分级、CAT评分、SGRQ得分总分、症状得分、日常生活影响得分呈正相关(P0.01、P0.05);与FEV1%预计值、FEV1/FVC存在负相关(P0.01); CAT评分与SGRQ的各项评分均有显著的相关性。结论 COPD稳定期患者中,部分患者存在下呼吸道细菌定植,细菌定植者比无细菌定植者表现出更差的肺功能和生活质量,且更易出现急性加重,CAT评分能较客观地反映患者的临床症状,而且简便易行操作性更强。     

493例支气管扩张急性感染的细菌学特点及药敏分析

目的分析支气管扩张症患者急性感染的细菌学特点及药敏情况。方法对本院呼吸科收治的493例支气管扩张急性感染患者痰标本的细菌培养及药敏试验进行分析。结果 493例痰标本分离出细菌200株,其中革兰阴性杆菌178株,占89.0%,革兰阳性球菌22株,占11.0%。根据五年统计结果,总数排在前6位的分别是铜绿假单胞菌(21.5%)、洛菲不动杆菌(15.5%)、肺炎克雷伯菌(8.5%),肠杆菌属(包括阴沟肠杆菌、产气肠杆菌、中间型肠杆菌及聚团肠杆菌)(8%)、鲍曼溶血不动杆菌(5.5%)和金黄色葡萄球菌(5%)。结论支气管扩张急性感染患者的细菌分布以革兰氏阴性菌为主,铜绿假单胞菌排在首位,提示合理选用抗菌药物对减少耐药菌的产生有重要作用。     

慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重期感染细菌及耐药性分析

目的 探讨慢性阻摩性肺疾病急性加重期(AECOPD)住院患者细菌分布情况、耐药现状及细菌分布与病情严重程度的关系.方法 回顾性分析2007年1月至2008年12月在长治医学院附属和平医院呼吸科诊断为AECOPD的患者146例,研究其感染细菌种类及分布特点、与病情严重性的关系及其耐药情况.结果 ①146例AECOPD患者中84例痰培养出菌株,62例痰培养无黹株生长,阳性率为57.53%(84/146);分离菌株92株(8例复合感染),以革兰阴性杆菌为主,细菌感染依次是:鲍曼不动杆菌13株(14.13%).大肠埃希菌10株(10.87%).肺炎克雷伯杆菌7株(7.61%).阴沟肠杆菌7株(7.61%),铜绿假单胞菌5株(5.43%).②AECOPD患者随着肺功能损害程度的加重,常伴革兰阴性杆菌感染的增加.③革兰阴性杆菌对头孢菌素类、氟喹诺酮类、氨基糖苷类及碳青霉烯类均产生耐药.结论 AECOPD住院患者细菌分布以革兰阴性杆菌为主.包括鲍曼不动杆菌、大肠埃希菌、肺炎克雷伯杆菌、阴沟肠杆菌和铜绿假单胞菌等.细菌分布与AECOPD患者肺功能损害程度有关,随着肺功能损害程度加重,革兰阴性杆菌的分离率增加.细菌耐药现象较为严重,革兰阴性杆菌对头孢菌素类耐药性较高,但对亚胺培南、阿米卡星的敏感性尚可.     

稳定期慢性阻塞性肺疾病气道炎症的研究

目的 研究稳定期慢性阻塞性肺疾病(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,COPD)气道炎症和肺功能、下气道细菌定植(lower airway bacterial colonization,LABC)的关系.方法 随机入选45例稳定期COPD门诊患者和28名健康志愿者,行肺功能、血常规和胸片检查.采用痰诱导方法 留取深部合格痰液,COPD患者的痰液行细菌定量培养,两组研究对象的痰液均行细胞因子检测.结果 稳定期COPD组痰液中白介素8(IL-8)、肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)、IL-10、IL-19明显高于对照组(P＜0.05).第1秒用力呼气容积占预计值百分比(FEV1%pred)＜50%组痰液中IL-8、TNF-α、IL-19明显高于FEV1%pred≥50%组(P＜0.05),而IL-10在两组间比较差异无统计学意义.在本实验中LABC量≥107CFU/ml者占总人数的33.33%,主要的下气道定植菌为卡他莫拉菌、副流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌等.LABC量≥107 CFU/ml组痰液中IL-8、TNF-α、IL-19明显高于LABC＜107 CFU/ml组(P＜0.05),而IL-10在两组间比较差异无统计学意义.相关性分析显示,IL-19与IL-10呈负相关,相关系数r=-0.548(P＜0.05),IL-19与IL-8、TNF-α呈正相关,相关系数分别为r=0.702(P＜0.05)、r=0.708(P＜0.05).FEV1%pred＜50%组细菌定植量明显高于FEV1%pred≥50%组(P＜0.05).FEV1%pred＜50%预计值组的吸烟指数明显高于FEV1%pred≥50%组(P＜0.05).结论 稳定期COPD患者存在气道炎症,既与LABC有关,又与吸烟有关,这种与LABC和吸烟相关的气道炎症可能是导致COPD患者肺功能进行性下降的原因.     

老年医院获得性肺炎70例临床分析

目的探讨老年医院获得性肺炎的病原菌,及药物敏感性。方法分析70例老年医院获得性肺炎患者的痰培养及药敏结果。结果痰培养分离出49株细菌,主要为革兰阴性菌。其中铜绿假单胞菌占16.3%,肺炎克雷伯菌占14.3%,鲍曼不动杆菌占12.2%,阴沟肠杆菌占10.2%其他革兰阴性菌占4.1%,药敏分析:铜绿假单胞菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、鲍曼不动杆菌、阴沟肠杆菌对多种抗菌药的敏感性均较低,肺炎克雷伯细菌、鲍曼不动杆菌、阴沟肠杆菌对亚胺培南、美罗培南的敏感率均在78%以上。结论老年医院获得性肺炎患者的病原菌以革兰阴性菌为主,应根据药敏结果合理应用抗生素。     

支气管扩张患者痰培养检出菌及药敏结果分析

目的:分析支气管扩张患者痰培养检出菌的分布及对抗菌药物的敏感性,为临床提供药物治疗依据。方法:对2007年7月至2011年7月,对北京安贞医院住院的212例支气管扩张患者,痰致病菌培养及药物敏感结果进行回顾性分析。结果:本组212例患者病原菌检出阳性95例(44.81%),共分离出细菌96株,铜绿假单胞菌29株(30.2%),肺炎克雷伯杆菌7株(7.29%),嗜麦芽假单胞菌4株(4.17%),大肠埃希氏菌3株(3.13%),产气肠杆菌2株(2.08%),阴沟肠杆菌2株(2.08%),弗氏柠檬酸杆菌2株(2.08%),荧光假单胞菌2株(2.08%),洋葱伯克霍尔德式菌1株(1.04%),醋酸钙-鲍曼氏不动杆菌10株(10.42%),醋酸钙不动杆菌2株(2.08%),鲍曼氏不动杆菌4株(4.17%),鲁氏不动杆菌1株(1.04%),金黄色葡萄球菌12株(12.50%),表皮葡萄球菌4株(4.17%),溶血葡萄球菌2株(2.08%),模拟葡萄球菌1株(4.17%),缓动链球菌1株(1.04%),铅黄肠球菌1株(1.04%),粪肠球菌2株(2.08%),白色假丝酵母4株(4.17%)。结论:支气管扩张患者病原菌占前3位的分别是铜绿假单胞菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、醋酸钙-鲍曼氏不动杆菌。真菌感染应值得关注。提示支气管扩张患者应合理选用抗生素药物。     

慢性阻塞性肺病稳定期患者生活质量与下呼吸道细菌定植及炎症反应的相关性

目的探讨慢性阻塞性肺病(COPD)稳定期患者生活质量与下呼吸道细菌定植及炎症反应的相关性。方法选择中重度COPD稳定期患者30例。对患者进行生活质量(SGRQ)问卷调查,记录各项得分。采集患者与志愿者痰液作为样本,统一进行细菌半定量培养。对受试者进行血清分离、血常规检查、血气分析、肺功能检测,各类检查结果进行统计学分析,探讨生活质量与下呼吸道细菌定植及炎症反应的相关性。结果经显微观察其中主要的定植细菌包括肺炎链球菌、洛菲不动杆菌和铜绿假单胞菌、(副)流感嗜血杆菌。血清化验结果显示,含有细菌定植的患者血清,IL-8的含量高于未含有细菌定植的患者和对照组(P<0.01),FEV1%预计值和FEV1/FVC%要明显低于无细菌定植样品(P<0.05);患者SGRQ问卷调查结果,总分、症状得分、活动得分、影响分的分布情况与IL-8呈正相关,同FEV1%预计值呈负相关(P<0.01)。结论 COPD稳定期患者生活质量较健康人差,且部分患者存在细菌定植。细菌定植患者的生活质量较差,炎症反应较重,三者具有明显的相关性。     

Yield of sputum microbiological examination in patients hospitalized for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with purulent sputum

BACKGROUND: Whether sputum microbiological examination should be performed systematically in hospitalized patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: To assess the yield of sputum microbiological examination in COPD patients hospitalized in a medical ward for an acute exacerbation with purulent sputum. METHODS: Two hundred consecutive exacerbations in 118 patients were studied. Patients underwent sputum microbiological examination on admission and baseline lung function tests and CT scans were recorded. Factors associated with positive culture were analyzed. RESULTS: Sputum culture was positive (>or=10(7) CFU/ml) in 59% of samples, Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae being the most frequent pathogens. Factors associated with positive culture were bronchiectasis, long-term oxygen therapy and low FEV1. Pseudomonas spp. were found in 8.5% of all patients, who all had a FEV1<50% of predicted and were older. Only 25% of sputum samples satisfied all quality criteria. Sputum culture was positive in a high proportion of these samples (80.5%), but also in one half of samples with >25 leukocytes but >10 epithelial cells per field. Microbiological results induced a change in antibiotic therapy in 43.9% of cases with both quality criteria but also in 25.2% of cases with only one quality criterion. Finally, a predominant aspect after Gram stain was found in all positive samples. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that sputum microbiological examination with direct examination and leukocyte count should be performed routinely in patients hospitalized for COPD exacerbations with purulent sputum, especially when FEV1 is less than 50% predicted and in patients with bronchiectasis.     

The role of atypical respiratory pathogens in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

The aetiology of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is heterogeneous and still under discussion. Serological studies have suggested that Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Legionella pneumophila may play a role in acute exacerbations of COPD. The presence of these atypical pathogens in sputum samples was investigated in patients with stable COPD and with acute exacerbations of COPD using real-time PCR. The present study was part of a randomised, double-blind, single-centre study and a total of 248 sputum samples from 104 COPD patients were included. In total, 122 samples obtained during stable disease (stable-state sputa) and 126 samples obtained during acute exacerbations of COPD (exacerbation sputa) were tested. Of the 122 stable-state sputa, all samples were negative for M. pneumoniae and C. pneumoniae DNA, whereas one sample was positive for Legionella non-pneumophila DNA. Of the 126 exacerbation sputa, all samples were negative for M. pneumoniae and C. pneumoniae DNA, whereas one sample was positive for Legionella non-pneumophila DNA. The possible relationship between the presence of atypical pathogens and the aetiology of acute exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was investigated in patients with stable disease and in those with acute exacerbations using real-time PCR. No indication was found of a role for Legionella spp., Chlamydia pneumoniae or Mycoplasma pneumoniae in stable, moderately severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in its exacerbations.     

Bacterial infections in patients requiring admission for an acute exacerbation of COPD; a 1-year prospective study

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To investigate the frequency of respiratory bacterial infections in hospitalized patients, admitted with an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), to identify the responsible pathogens by sputum culture and to assess patient characteristics in relation to sputum culture results. METHODS: We prospectively evaluated clinical data and sputum culture results of 171 patients, admitted to the pulmonology department of the University Hospital Maastricht with an acute exacerbation of COPD from 1st January 1999 until 31st December 1999. RESULTS: Eighty-five patients (50%) had positive sputum cultures, indicating the presence of bacterial infection. Pathogens most frequently isolated were: Haemophilus influenzae (45%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (27%), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (15%). Patients with more severely compromised lung function had a higher incidence of bacterial infections (P = 0.026). There were no significant differences in age, lung function parameters, blood gas results and length of hospital stay between patients with and without bacterial infection. There were no correlations between the type of bacteria isolated and clinical characteristics. CONCLUSION: Incidence of bacterial infection during acute exacerbations of COPD is about 50%. Patients with and without bacterial infection are not different in clinical characteristics or in outcome parameters. Patients with lower FEV1 have a higher incidence of bacterial infections, but there is no difference in the type of bacterial infection. In the future, the pathogenic role of bacterial infection in exacerbations of COPD should be further investigated, especially the role of bacterial infection in relation to local and systemic inflammation.     

Bacterial infection and risk factors in outpatients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a 2-year prospective study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD) are commonly observed in community-based patients worldwide. The factors causing exacerbation are largely unknown. This study was undertaken to determine the predominant bacterial pathogens cultured from sputum in community-based patients with AECOPD, to assess the risk factors associated with exacerbations and to compare these findings with published studies. METHODS: Forty-five patients with stable COPD were prospectively followed in the outpatients' clinic of King Abdulaziz University Hospital. At the first visit, personal data, CXR and measurement of baseline PEF were obtained from each patient. In the subsequent visits, sputum culture and CXR were carried out during exacerbations. RESULTS: Over a period of 24 months, patients made a total of 139 visits for exacerbations, and 69.8% had a positive sputum culture for a single pathogen. Moraxella catarrhalis (25.2%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (12.2%) and Haemophilus influenzae (11.5%) were the most common isolated organisms. Patients with a lower level of baseline PEF had a significantly increased frequency of exacerbations (r = 0.337, P = 0.024). However, there was a weak correlation between exacerbation frequency and duration of COPD and exposure to cigarette smoking. CONCLUSION: There was a higher incidence of Moraxella catarrhalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa than reported in previous studies. These findings should influence antibiotic selection for exacerbations. COPD patients with a low baseline PEF are at a higher risk of having repeated exacerbations and gram-negative pathogens.     

Sputum color as a marker of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

We analyzed 795 sputa from 315 patients (233 males, mean age 69.3+/-8.8 years, mean number of exacerbations 2.52/patient) with acute exacerbations of moderate-to-severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (mean steady-state FEV1 42.5+/-7.8% of predicted). 581/795 sputa were considered adequate. Sputum was analyzed by a quali-quantitative colorimetric scale allowing both color distinction and color degree of intensity. Quantitative culture was then performed (threshold: >10(6)CFU/mL). Samples were distinguished in mucoid (145) and purulent (436) sputa. Absence of bacterial growth was observed in 22% and 5% of mucoid and purulent sputa, respectively. Among mucoid sputa, Gram positive bacterial growth occurred more commonly compared to Gram negative and Pseudomonas aeruginosa/Enterobacteriaceae (56%, 24%, 20%, respectively). In purulent sputa, Gram positives were found in 38% of cases, Gram negatives in 38%, and P. aeruginosa/Enterobacteriaceae in 24%. We evaluated whether functional impairment (FEV1) orientates as to the infectious etiology of exacerbations. Significant differences were observed in the distribution of pathogens. Gram negative and P. aeruginosa/Enterobacteriaceae were isolated more frequently in the sputum when FEV1 was <35%. Our study indicates that purulent sputum is strongly associated with bacterial growth in COPD exacerbations. Deepening sputum color (from yellowish to brownish) was associated with increased yield of Gram negative and P. aeruginosa/Enterobacteriaceae.     

降钙素原与支气管扩张急性加重期患者痰培养的相关性

目的 探讨降钙素原与支气管扩张急性加重期患者痰培养结果的相关性.方法 选取从2013年11月至2015年11月由莱芜市人民医院及山东大学齐鲁医院收治、确诊为支气管扩张急性加重期的患者,比较痰培养阳性患者与阴性患者的降钙素原的差别,比较痰培养为铜绿假单胞菌患者与其他细菌或真菌患者的降钙素原的差别.结果 共纳入120例患者,痰培养阳性率为43.3％,最常见的病原菌为铜绿假单胞菌(59.6％).降钙素原＞0.25tμg/L的患者占37.5％.痰培养阳性组患者的降钙素原显著高于痰培养阴性组患者(P＜0.05),而且痰培养阳性组患者中降钙素原＞0.25 μg/L所占比例显著高于痰培养阴性组(P＜o.05).痰培养为铜绿假单胞菌患者的降钙素原与痰培养为其他细菌或真菌的患者差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 支气管扩张急性加重期患者降钙素原升高与痰培养阳性有相关关系,而降钙素原在铜绿假单胞菌感染及其他病原菌感染的鉴别方面无价值.     

AECOPD患者呼吸道感染病原菌及药敏分析

目的探讨老年慢性阻塞性肺病急性加重期（AECOPD）呼吸道病原菌群的分布及分析药敏试验结果。方法对我院老年呼吸病房及呼吸病特色诊疗中心住院的120例AECOPD患者的痰细菌培养和药敏试验结果进行分析。结果COPD急性加重期感染的病原菌中,革兰氏阴性杆菌占65．69％,以肺炎克雷伯菌、铜绿假单胞菌、大肠埃希氏菌、鲍曼不动杆菌为主;革兰氏阳性球菌占28．43％,以肺炎链球菌、葡萄球菌为主;真菌占5．88％;一种以上病原菌混台感染占5．0％。细菌体外药敏试验发现：亚胺培南、头孢吡肟、头孢他啶、哌拉西林、罗米沙星对大部分革兰阴性杆菌有较好敏感性,亚胺培南、头孢毗肟、头孢他啶、万古霉素对大部分革兰阳性球菌有较好敏感性,本组真菌对氟胞嘧啶、两性霉素、氟康唑、伊曲康唑均敏感。结论AECOPD分离的细菌以革兰氏阴性杆菌为主,真菌感染率较高,应引起重视。各病原菌对多种抗菌药物的耐药率有上升趋势。     

Predictors of positive sputum cultures in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Background and objective: Although sputum culture in patients with an acute exacerbation of COPD is of uncertain value, it is routinely done. The ability to clinically identify patients likely or unlikely to yield bacterial sputum isolates would potentially reduce unnecessary tests. The objective of this study was to identify the clinical predictors of positive sputum cultures in this patient population. Methods: Consecutive patients with a COPD exacerbation requiring an emergency visit were prospectively enrolled. Quantitative sputum culture was performed on‐site. Data on current smoking, sputum purulence, FEV₁, Medical Research Council chronic dyspnoea scale, BMI, severe exacerbations in the preceding year requiring hospitalization, PaO₂, PaCO₂, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score, and oral and inhaled steroid use were recorded. Results: Of the 94 patients enrolled, sputum from 36 yielded bacterial pathogens. These patients were characterized by a higher frequency of purulent sputum, lower FEV₁, BMI and PaO_2, higher APACHE II score and more frequent use of inhaled steroids (P < 0.05). On multivariate regression, purulent sputum, FEV₁ and BMI were independent determinants of a positive sputum culture. Using receiver‐operator‐optimized thresholds for these variables (purulent sputum, FEV₁ < 35% predicted and BMI ≤ 22 kg/m²), we proposed a regression coefficient‐weighted prediction model that accurately determined the likelihood of sputum bacterial isolation. Conclusions: A prediction model based on the variables of purulent sputum, FEV₁ and BMI predicted sputum culture result with about 90% accuracy. Pending further validation, this model may save valuable healthcare resources.     

Acute purulent exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection.

In order to investigate the role of bacteria, including Mycoplasma pneumoniae and especially Chlamydia pneumoniae in acute purulent exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), we examined sputum specimens and acute and convalescent sera taken 26 d apart from 49 outpatients experiencing an acute purulent exacerbation of COPD. The sera were tested for antibodies to C. pneumoniae with the microimmunofluorescence test, and for antibodies to M. pneumoniae with the indirect fluorescence antibody test. Routine microbiologic culture of sputum yielded potentially pathogenic microorganisms in 12 of the 49 patients (24%). Three patients (6%) showed serologic evidence of recent M. pneumoniae infection. Seven patients showed high IgG titers of >/= 1:1,024 to C. pneumoniae, and an additional four had a fourfold increase in IgG titer, suggesting reinfection with C. pneumoniae. Sputum from two of these 11 patients also grew Streptococcus pneumoniae, and one grew Moraxella catarrhalis. Patients with and without serologic evidence of current C. pneumoniae infection showed no significant differences in clinical features or pulmonary function. The high incidence of infection with C. pneumoniae (the sole causal agent in 16% of cases, and the causal agent with other agents in 6%) provides insight into the importance of this organism among agents leading to exacerbations of COPD in Turkey.     

Pseudomonal infections in patients with COPD: epidemiology and management

COPD is a common disease with increasing prevalence. The chronic course of the disease is characterized by acute exacerbations that cause significant worsening of symptoms. Bacterial infections play a dominant role in approximately half of the episodes of acute exacerbations of COPD. The importance of pseudomonal infection in patients with acute exacerbations of COPD stems from its relatively high prevalence in specific subgroups of these patients, and particularly its unique therapeutic ramifications. The colonization rate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with COPD in a stable condition is low.A review of a large number of clinical series of unselected outpatients with acute exacerbations of COPD revealed that P. aeruginosa was isolated from the patients' sputum at an average rate of 4%. This rate increased significantly in COPD patients with advanced airflow obstruction, in whom the rate of sputum isolates of P. aeruginosa reached 8-13% of all episodes of acute exacerbations of COPD. However, the great majority of bacteria isolated in these patients were not P. aeruginosa, but the three classic bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. The subgroup of patients, with acute exacerbations of COPD, with the highest rate of P. aeruginosa infection, which approaches 18% of the episodes, is mechanically ventilated patients. However, even in this subgroup the great majority of bacteria isolated are the above-mentioned three classic pathogens. In light of these epidemiologic data and other important considerations, and in order to achieve optimal antibacterial coverage for the common infectious etiologies, empiric antibacterial therapy should be instituted as follows. Patients with acute exacerbations of COPD with advanced airflow obstruction (FEV(1) <50% of predicted under stable conditions) should receive once daily oral therapy with one of the newer fluoroquinolones, i.e. levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, gatifloxacin, or gemifloxacin for 5-10 days. Patients with severe acute exacerbations of COPD who are receiving mechanical ventilation should receive amikacin in addition to one of the intravenous preparations of the newer fluoroquinolones or monotherapy with cefepime, a carbapenem or piperacillin/tazobactam. In both subgroups it is recommended that sputum cultures be performed before initiation of therapy so that the results can guide further therapy.