Ontogeny of expression of transforming growth factor-β and its receptors and their possible relationship with scarless or scar-forming healing in human fetal and postnatal skins

Fetal cutaneous wounds that occur in early gestation heal without scar formation. Although much work has been done to characterize the role of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) isoforms and their receptors in wound healing process, their roles in scarless wound repair in early gestation,their functions in human fetal skin development and structural and functional maintenance are still not well understood. In this study, we explore the expression and distribution characteristics of three TGF-β isoforms, their receptors, i. e.     

The expression characteristics and biological significance of bFGF, EGF,TGF-β isoforms and their receptors in skins from fetus and adult

To observe the localization and expression characteristics of alpha-smooth muscle actin (AS-MA), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factor-β(TGF-β) isoforms, and their receptors in fetal and adult skins in order to explore their potential biological significance.Methods: The expression and the distribution of ASMA, bFGF, EGF, TGF-βisoforms, and their receptors were detected with immunohistochemistry and histopathology methods in 36 skin specimens. Among them, 30 specimens belonged to fetuses at different developmental stages and 6 were from adults. Results:Positive immunohistochemical signals of ASMA, bFGF, EGF, and TGF-βisoforms and their receptors could be found in fetal and postnatal skins.These factors were mainly distributed in the cytoplasm and extracellular matrix of epidermal cells, endothelial cells,hair follicle epithelial cells and some fibroblasts. Receptors of these factors were mostly located in the cellular membrane of the above mentioned cells, while protein particles of ASMA could be observed in myofibroblasts and sweat gland cells. Along with ascent in gestational age, the positive cellular rates of bFGF, EGF, TGF-βisoforms, their receptors, and ASMA in skin were elevated progressively. In skins specimens obtained from fetuses of late-trimester (29-31 week gestation) and adult, the positive rates of these proteins were significantly raised in comparison with skin of fetuses of early-trimester. Conclusion: The endogenous bFGF, EGF, three TGF-βisoforms and their receptors might be involved in the development of the skin in embryonic stage and in the cutaneous structure and function,and also wound healing in adult stage. The relative lack of these factors and their receptors might be one reason why the wound of fetus heal by regeneration rather than by scarring.     

Ontogeny of expression of basic fibroblast growth factor and its receptors in human fetal skin

The wounds in skin of early gestational fetus healwithout scar formation by a process resemblingregeneration rather than repair.1The ability torepair congenital anomalies in uterus such as cleft lipwith scarless healing will revolutionize the field ofreconstructive plastic surgery. Furthermore, if thebiological properties of scarless fetal healing aredetermined, these characteristics mightbe replicated inthe adult environment with tremendous clinicalbenefits. This non-scarring phenomenon is ge…     

Cells, matrix, growth factors, and the surgeon. The biology of scarless fetal wound repair.

OBJECTIVE: This review updates the surgeon about the cellular, matrix, and growth factor components of scarless fetal wound repair. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Fetal skin wound healing is characterized by the absence of scar tissue formation. This unique repair process is not dependent on the sterile, aqueous intrauterine environment. The differences between fetal and adult skin wound healing appear to reflect processes intrinsic to fetal tissue, such as the unique fetal fibroblasts, a more rapid and ordered deposition and turnover of tissue components, and, particularly, a markedly reduced inflammatory infiltrate and cytokine profile. Scarless fetal wounds are relatively deficient in the inflammatory cytokine, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta). In contrast, the fibrosis characteristic of adult wound repair may be associated with TGF-beta excess. Recent experimental studies suggest that specific anti-TGF-beta therapeutic strategies can ameliorate scar formation in adult wound repair and fibrotic diseases. Inhibitors of TGF-beta may be important future drugs to control scar. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the scarless fetal wound repair model, a number of ways in which the matrix and cellular response of the healing adult wound might be manipulated to reduce scarring are reviewed.     

Novel differences in the expression of inflammation‐associated genes between mid‐ and late‐gestational dermal fibroblasts

While cutaneous wounds of late‐gestational fetuses and on through adulthood result in scar formation, wounds incurred early in gestation have been shown to heal scarlessly. Unique properties of fetal fibroblasts are believed to mediate this scarless healing process. In this study, microarray analysis was used to identify differences in the gene expression profiles of cultured fibroblasts from embryonic day 15 (E15; midgestation) and embryonic day 18 (E18; late‐gestation) skin. Sixty‐two genes were differentially expressed and 12 of those genes are associated with inflammation, a process that correlates with scar formation in fetal wounds. One of the differentially expressed inflammatory genes was cyclooxygenase‐1 (COX‐1). COX‐1 was more highly expressed in E18 fibroblasts than in E15 fibroblasts, and these differences were confirmed at the gene and protein level. Differences in COX‐1 protein expression were also observed in fetal skin by immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence staining. The baseline differences in gene expression found in mid‐ and late‐gestational fetal fibroblasts suggest that developmental alterations in fibroblasts could be involved in the transition from scarless to fibrotic fetal wound healing. Furthermore, baseline differences in the expression of inflammatory genes by fibroblasts in E15 and E18 skin may contribute to inflammation and scar formation late in gestation.     

Exogenous transforming growth factor-beta amplifies its own expression and induces scar formation in a model of human fetal skin repair.

OBJECTIVE: Fetal skin wounds heal without scarring. To determine the role of TGF-beta 1 in fetal wound healing, mRNA expression of TGF-beta 1 was analyzed in human fetal and adult skin wounds. METHODS: Human fetal skin transplanted to a subcutaneous location on an adult athymic mouse that was subsequently wounded heals without scar, whereas human adult skin heals with scar formation in that location. In situ hybridization for TGF-beta 1 mRNA expression and species-specific immunohistochemistry for fibroblasts, macrophages, and neutrophils were performed in human adult wounds, fetal wounds, and fetal wounds treated with a TGF-beta 1 slow release disk. RESULTS: Transforming growth factor-beta 1 mRNA expression was induced by wounding adult skin. No TGF-beta 1 mRNA upregulation was detected in human fetal skin after wounding. However, when exogenous TGF-beta 1 was added to human fetal skin, induction of TGF-beta 1 mRNA expression in human fetal fibroblasts occurred, an adult-like inflammatory response was detected, and the skin healed with scar formation. CONCLUSIONS: Transforming growth factor-beta 1 is an important modulator in scar formation. Anti-TGF-beta 1 strategies may promote scarless healing in adult wounds.     

Fetal mouse skin heals scarlessly in a chick chorioallantoic membrane model system

In mammals, the early-gestation fetus has the regenerative ability to heal skin wounds without scar formation. This observation was first reported more than 3 decades ago, and has been confirmed in a number of in vivo animal models. Although an intensive research effort has focused on unraveling the mechanisms underlying scarless fetal wound repair, no suitable model of in vitro fetal skin healing has been developed. In this article, we report a novel model for the study of fetal wound healing. Fetal skin from gestational day 16.5 Balb/c mice (total gestation, 20 days) was grafted onto the chorioallantoic membrane of 12-day-old chicken embryos and cultured for up to 7 days. At 48 hours postengraftment, circular wounds (diameter = 1 mm) were made in the fetal skin using a rotating titanium sapphire laser (N = 45). The tissue was examined daily by visual inspection to look for signs of infection and ischemia. The grafts and the surrounding host tissue were examined histologically. In all fetal skin grafts, the wounds completely reepithelialized by postinjury day 7, with regeneration of the dermis. Fetal mouse skin xenografts transplanted onto the chorioallantoic membrane of fertilized chicken eggs provides a useful model for the study of fetal wound healing. This model can be used as an adjunct to traditional in vivo mammalian models of fetal repair.     

胎儿和少儿皮肤内碱性成纤维细胞生长因子及其受体的基因表达

目的　探讨不同胎龄的胎儿和少儿皮肤中碱性成纤维细胞生长因子 (bFGF)及其两种受体 (bek和flg)基因表达的变化。 方法　提取 18例不同胎龄 ( 13～ 3 2周 )的胎儿皮肤和 6例少儿皮肤的总RNA后 ,分离mRNA ,用逆转录 聚合酶链反应 (RT PCR)方法检测这 3种基因在不同组织中的表达。结果　在早期妊娠胎儿的皮肤中 ,bFGF ,flg和bek基因表达较强 ,随着胎儿的生长和发育 ,皮肤组织内这 3种基因表达逐渐降低 ,在少儿皮肤中 3种基因的表达量分别为晚期妊娠胎儿皮肤的 62 .5 % ,5 9.5 %和 5 2 .9% ,基因表达显著降低 ( P <0 .0 5 )。结论　bFGF及其受体基因可能在皮肤的发生、结构功能的维持以及伤后修复中起重要作用。这 3种基因在胎儿皮肤中表达水平较高可能与胎儿皮肤细胞增殖较快 ,皮肤创面愈合迅速有关。     

胎儿皮肤免疫细胞CD68、CD3的表达与无瘢痕愈合的关系

目的探讨人胎儿皮肤、正常成人皮肤及增生性瘢痕(HS)组织免疫细胞CD68、CD3与无瘢痕愈合的关系。方法选择笔者单位引产的16~33周胎龄的10例胎儿皮肤、7例正常成人皮肤以及18例HS标本,用免疫组织化学的方法分别检测其巨噬细胞、T淋巴细胞的表面标志CD68、CD3的表达。结果胎儿皮肤中CD68[(5±6)个/400倍视野]显著少于成人[(23±4)个/400倍视野,P<0.01],成人皮肤中CD68又显著少于HS[(38±16)个/400倍视野,P<0·01].随胎龄增加,CD68逐渐增多,在24~28周胎龄时迅速上升,28周以后上升缓慢。发育各期胎儿皮肤中均未见CD3;成人皮肤中可见少量CD3[(24±8)个/400倍视野],主要分布于表皮基底层;HS组织中CD3较多[(69±25)个/400倍视野],常聚集成片状,主要分布于真皮乳头层,在小血管周围呈袖套状分布,数量和染色强度大于成人皮肤(P<0.01).结论胎儿皮肤中CD68数量少可能与无瘢痕愈合存在一定的关系;同时胎儿皮肤无瘢痕愈合可能与胎儿皮肤中缺乏CD3有关。     

Analysis of differentially expressed genes in fetal skin of scarless and scar-forming periods of gestational rats

Objective: To study the differences of gene expression between earlier gestational skin and later gestational skin of rats with the aids of single primer amplification (SPA) and high-density oligonucleotide DNA array to understand the molecular mechanism of scarless healing. Methods: Total RNAs were isolated from fetal rat skin of the scarless (E15) and scar-forming (E18) periods of gestation (term =21.5 days). The RNAs from earlier gestational skin (EGS) and later gestational skin (LGS) were both reversely transcribed to cDNAs, then labeled with the incorporation of fluorescent dCTP for preparing the hybridization probes by SPA method. The mixed probes were then hybridized to the oligonucleotide DNA arrays which contained 5 705 probes representing 5 705 rat genes. After highly stringent washing, these DNA arrays were scanned for fluorescent signals to display the differentially expressed genes between the 2 groups of skin. Results: Among 5 705 rat genes, there were 53 genes (0.93%) with differentially expressed levels between EGS and LGS groups, 27 genes, including fibroblast growth factor 2 ( FGF2 ) and follistatin were up-regulated (0.47%) and 26 genes were down-regulated (0.46%) in fetal skin during scarless period versus scar-forming period. Higher expressions of FGF2 and follistatin in EGS than those in LGS were also revealed by RT-PCR method. Conclusions: High-density oligonucleotide DNA array provided a powerful tool for investigating differential gene expression in earlier and later gestational fetal skins. This technology validates that the mechanism of fetal scarless healing is very complicate and the change of many gene expressions is associated with fetal scarless healing.     

Transforming growth factor-β3 affects plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 expression in fetal mice and modulates fibroblast-mediated collagen gel contraction

For over two decades, the precise role of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) isoforms in scarless healing of mammalian fetal skin wounds has generated much interest. Although their exact role remains to be established, it has been suggested that high TGF-beta3 activity may correlate with a scarless phenotype. Previously, we showed that plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), a known TGF-beta downstream molecule and marker of fibrosis, is also developmentally regulated during fetal skin development. In this study, the relationship between TGF-beta3 and PAI-1 was investigated using embryonic day 14.5 TGF-beta3 knockout (ko) mice. The results showed increased PAI-1 expression in the epidermis and dermis of ko mice, using an ex vivo limb-wounding study. Furthermore, increased PAI-1 expression and activity was seen in embryo extracts and conditioned media of ko dermal fibroblasts. When TGF-beta3 knockout fibroblasts were placed into three-dimensional collagen matrices, they were found to have decreased collagen gel contraction, suggesting altered cell-matrix interaction. These findings provide a further avenue for the interactive role of TGF-beta3 and PAI-1 during fetal scarless repair.     

Permissive environment in postnatal wounds induced by adenoviral-mediated overexpression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 prevents scar formation

Wound healing in the mid-gestation fetus is scarless with minimal inflammation and a unique extracellular matrix. We have previously documented the relative lack of inflammatory cytokines in this environment. We demonstrate that interleukin (IL)-10 is highly expressed in mid-gestation human fetal skin but is absent in postnatal human skin. We hypothesize that overexpression of IL-10 in postnatal skin may replicate a permissive environment for scarless healing. To study the mechanism underlying this process we performed immunohistochemistry for IL-10 in human mid-gestation fetal and postnatal skin. We also determined if adenoviral-mediated overexpression of IL-10 could allow for scarless wound healing in a murine incisional wound model. Wounds were analyzed at 1–90 days postwounding for effects on scar formation, inflammatory response, and biomechanical properties. Ad-IL-10 reconstitutes a permissive environment for scarless healing as shown by reconstitution of a normal dermal reticular collagen pattern and distribution of dermal elements. Compared with controls, Ad-IL-10 treated wounds showed reduced inflammatory response and no difference in biomechanical parameters. Therefore, overexpression of IL-10 in postnatal wounds results in a permissive environment for scarless wound repair, possibly by replicating a fetal wound environment.     

用基因芯片研究不同皮肤组织创面愈合过程中同源异形框基因的差异表达

目的 探讨人胎儿及成人皮肤创面愈合过程中同源异形框基因的差异表达.方法 采用包含有14000个靶基因cDNA克隆的基因芯片技术,对正常成人和胎儿及其创面愈合过程中同源异形框基因族的表达进行对比观察.结果 正常成人和胎儿及其创面愈合过程中同源异形框基因族呈现差异表达,其中以PRX-2、HOXB13、HOXB6和HOXB7的差异表达为显著.结论 同源异形框基因的差异表达表明正常成人和胎儿皮肤的发育生物学状态存在差异,可能是胎儿和成人皮肤不同创面愈合方式的根本原因.     

Fetal diaphragmatic wounds heal with scar formation

Fetal wound healing is fundamentally different from wound healing in the adult. Although experimental work in mice, rats, rabbits, monkeys, and sheep has demonstrated that fetal healing occurs without inflammation and scarring, all of these studies have been limited to fetal skin wounds. Whether all fetal tissues heal in a regenerative-like fashion is unknown. Amniotic fluid exposure may play an important role in scarless fetal skin wound healing, but the effect of amniotic fluid on fetal mesothelial wound healing has not been characterized. To investigate these questions we created bilateral linear diaphragmatic wounds in 100-day gestation fetal lambs (term = 145 days). The right thoracotomy was closed to exclude amniotic fluid. In contrast, the left thoracotomy was fashioned into an Eloesser flap which permitted the left diaphragmatic wound to be continually bathed in amniotic fluid. Wounds were harvested after 1, 2, 7, or 14 days and analyzed by light microscopy and immunohistochemistry with antibodies to collagen types I, III, IV, and VI. Whether bathed in or excluded from amniotic fluid, the mesothelial-lined diaphragm healed with scar formation and without evidence of muscle regeneration. Interestingly, diaphragmatic wounds exposed to amniotic fluid were covered by a thick fibrous collagen peel similar to that seen in gastroschisis bowel. These findings indicate that not all fetal tissues share the unique scarless healing properties of fetal skin.     

Midgestational excisional fetal lamb wounds contract in utero

Clinical observations and experimental data suggest that fetal wound healing is very different from adult wound healing. An understanding of the biology of scarless fetal wound healing has tremendous clinical potential for modulating postnatal wound problems. In this study, the fetal lamb model was used to assess excisional fetal skin wound contraction in utero. Full-thickness 9-mm punch biopsy wounds were created on fetal lambs at 100 days' gestation (term, 145 days). Half of the wounds remained exposed to amniotic fluid, whereas the other half were covered by a silastic patch to exclude amniotic fluid. Wounds were harvested 3, 7, or 14 days later and wound areas were calculated. Exposure to amniotic fluid retarded wound contraction significantly at 3 days, but by 14 days all wounds had completely contracted and reepithelialized. Myofibroblasts are an important cellular element of wound contraction. The presence of wound myofibroblasts was documented by both transmission electronmicroscopy and immunocytochemistry with antimuscle actin antibody. It is concluded that fetal lamb wounds contract in utero and exposure to amniotic fluid appears to retard fetal skin wound contraction only during the early healing process.     

胎儿和成人皮肤及其创面愈合过程中碱性成纤维细胞生长因子的表达及意义

目的　探讨胎儿和成人皮肤及其创面愈合过程中碱性成纤维细胞生长因子 (b FGF)的表达及其意义。方法　将孕龄 2 0～ 2 4周胎儿皮肤移植至 BAL B/ C裸鼠背部皮下 ,皮片成活后制造创面 ,建立胎儿无瘢痕愈合动物模型 ,定期获取相应标本。对临床所取正常成人皮肤及创面愈合皮肤标本 ,采用免疫组织化学染色方法 ,观察 b FGF的表达情况。　结果　正常胎儿皮肤及创伤后胎儿皮肤中均未见明显的 b FGF阳性表达。正常成人皮肤中血管周围可见阳性表达 ;创伤后成人皮肤也可见阳性表达 ,尤其成纤维细胞和血管内皮细胞创伤后表达明显增强。高倍镜视野随机观察计数b FGF阳性表达细胞数 ,正常胎儿皮肤为 2 .1± 0 .1,创伤后 12小时 ,1、3天和 1周胎儿皮肤分别为 2 .2± 0 .1、2 .1± 0 .3、2 .1± 0 .3和 2 .0± 0 .1;正常成人皮肤为 2 3.2± 4 .2 ,创伤后成人皮肤为 4 0 .5± 3.6 ,胎儿正常皮肤和创伤皮肤 b FGF表达与正常成人皮肤和创伤后皮肤 b FGF表达比较 ,差异有统计学意义 (P<0 .0 1)。　结论　 b FGF的阴性表达可能是胎儿皮肤无瘢痕愈合的重要原因之一。     

人创面愈合过程中同源异形框基因的表达及意义

目的 探讨人胎儿及成人皮肤创面愈合过程中，几种同源异形框基因的表达及在胎儿无瘢痕愈合中的作用。方法 采用原位杂交方法，对正常成人和胎儿皮肤及创面愈合过程中PRX—2、H0XBl3、H0X2．2和H0X2．3的表达进行观察。结果 (1)在正常胎儿和成人皮肤中可见PRX—2阳性表达，以前阳性程度为强。分布部位有所不同，在正常胎儿皮肤中，阳性表达主要见于真皮乳头层毛干部周围细胞，表皮中也可见阳性表达；而在正常成人皮肤中，表皮基底层细胞呈弱阳性表达，真皮组织中未见阳性表达。胎儿皮肤创伤后，接近切口的组织中阳性表达明显增强，而成人皮肤创伤后，阳性表达未见明显变化，仍局限于表皮基底层细胞；(2)在正常胎儿及成人皮肤均可见H0XBl3阳性表达，真皮部分主要集中在毛囊细胞，表皮部分主要集中在基底层细胞，创伤后其表达明显减弱，尤其是胎儿皮肤；(3)在正常胎儿皮肤中H0X2．2和H0X2．3阳性表达主要见于表皮全层，表皮基底层阳性表达比较强，真皮中可见弱阳性表达，创伤后近切口的组织中，表达增强。在正常成人皮肤及其创面，未见到阳性表达。结论 同源异形框基因作为与发育生物学密切相关的基因，在人胎儿及成人皮肤创面愈合过程中的表达有所不同，这可能是二创面愈合差异的根本原因。     

The ontogeny of scarless healing II: EGF and PDGF-B gene expression in fetal rat skin and fibroblasts as a function of gestational age

Twenty years ago, surgeons noted the ability of early-gestation fetal skin to heal in a scarless manner. Since that time, numerous investigators have attempted to elucidate the mechanisms behind this phenomenon. As a result of this effort, it is now well established that many animals undergo a transition late in development from scarless cutaneous healing to a scar-forming, adultlike phenotype. The authors have been interested in the role played by cytokines known to be involved in the adult wound-healing process and how they relate to scarless repair. They therefore asked the following question: Are genes for epidermal growth factor (EGF) and platelet-derived growth factor-B (PDGF-B) expressed differentially as a function of gestational age in fetal rat skin and dermal fibroblasts? To answer this question, skin from fetal Sprague-Dawley rats (N = 56) at time points that represented both the scarless and scar-forming periods of rat gestation was harvested. In addition, fibroblasts derived from fetal rat skin were cultured in vitro at similar times. These cells were expanded in culture and, when confluent, total ribonucleic acid from both fibroblasts and whole skin was extracted and subjected to Northern blot analysis with probes for EGF and PDGF-B. Results demonstrated that neither EGF nor PDGF-B gene expression changed markedly as a function of gestational age in fetal fibroblasts alone. In whole skin, however, both EGF and PDGF-B demonstrated a marked decrease in gene expression with increasing gestational age. Furthermore, the most striking decrease in gene expression for both cytokines came between 16 and 18 days of gestation-the transition point between scarless and scar-forming repair in the fetal rat. These data suggest that EGF and PDGF may play a role in the mechanism of scarless cutaneous repair. Moreover, it appears that fetal fibroblasts are not the cell type responsible for this differential gene expression. These results raise questions about the unique cytokine milieu likely to be present during the time of scarless healing and the cells that ultimately guide the mechanisms leading to skin regeneration.