Perceptions of child labour among working children in Ibadan, Nigeria

BACKGROUND: The adverse effects of child labour on the children's psychological development continue to raise concerns about this public health problem worldwide. Several views have been presented by child health authorities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies. Few studies have focused on the children themselves. This study sought to determine working children's perspective of child labour, its benefits and disadvantages and the working children's perceptions of themselves, and their aspirations for the future. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out among working children in a large market in Ibadan, south-west Nigeria. Questionnaires were administered to all consenting children. RESULTS: A total of 225 children, 132 females and 93 males, participated in the survey. Their age range was 8-17 years. A total of 103 respondents (46%) were currently in school while 117 (52%) were out of school. Five respondents (2%) had never attended school. A total of 104 (46%) thought that children should not work. However, when asked about the benefits of working, 81 working children (36%) felt that work provided a source of income for them, 52 (23%) indicated that it was a way of helping their parents and 39 (17%) thought it was part of their training to be responsible adults. Bad company, ill health and road traffic accidents were the perceived ill effects of child labour. The majority of the children interviewed were aspiring towards artisan trades and very few towards professional or office jobs. A total of 106 (47%) children perceived themselves as less fortunate than their peers. Fifty-five children (24%) thought that child labour was a sign of deprivation. The perception that child labour is a sign of deprivation was more prevalent among child workers whose highest educational attainment was primary school, child workers who had worked for more than 6 months and those whose earnings were small. CONCLUSION: We recommend that school education for children should be a priority even when the harsh economic realities in their families force parents to send them to work outside the home.     

The impact of a child's chronic illness on school‐aged siblings

Seventy‐two school‐aged children and their parents participated in tape‐recorded interviews to identify the needs and concerns of the children and their perceptions of changes experienced by the family related to having a child with a chronic illness. The majority of the child subjects expressed worries about their sibling who had a chronic illness. The subjects identified more changes in their parents than in themselves.     

家庭环境对中学生心理健康影响的研究

目的探讨家庭环境对中学生心理健康的影响。方法采用症状自评量表（ScL-90）和父母养育方式评价量表（EMBu）对安徽省宣城市某普通中学八年级116名学生进行心理健康测量。结果核心家庭的中学生心理健康水平高于单亲家庭和主干家庭的学生;父母采用情感温暖、理解的教育方式时,中学生出现心理健康方面的症状较少;而采用惩罚严厉、过分干涉、拒绝否认和过度保护的教育方式时,易出现如焦虑、抑郁、敌对情绪及人际冲突等诸多心理健康方面的症状;中学生家庭经济状况与心理健康量表的各个因子之间存在显著相关。结论不同的家庭结构、父母教养方式和家庭经济情况对中学生心理健康状况具有重要的影响。     

Low‐Income Mothers' Nighttime and Weekend Work: Daily Associations With Child Behavior,Mother‐Child Interactions,and Mood

This study investigated low‐income mothers' daily nighttime and weekend work and family outcomes. Sixty‐one mothers of preschool‐aged children reported daily on work hours, mood, mother‐child interaction, and child behavior for two weeks (N = 724 person‐days). Although nighttime and weekend work are both nonstandard schedules, results showed adverse associations of working nighttime hours on family outcomes—more negative mood and mother‐child interactions; less positive child behavior—but no relationship between weekend work and family outcomes.     

Literacy identity and agency: linking classrooms to communities

Family literacy is frequently taken to mean involving parents in helping to teach their children school‐type literacy tasks in the home (for example, ; ). This article presents the case for an alternative approach to family and community involvement in school‐based literacy tasks by drawing on the child’s agency. The argument is rooted in theoretical, conceptual and methodological advances to studying real‐world everyday literacy across the life span and is based on the principles for pedagogy that flow from that work.     

Mental health problems among labour children in the Gaza Strip

Background There is increasing international concern over the rising number of children involved in labour, particularly in developing countries. Despite the multitude of related risk factors, and some evidence on their social needs, there has been limited research on these children's mental health. Methods The aim of this study was to establish the association between labour‐related variables and mental health problems among 780 children in labour (aged 9–18 years, mean 15.8) in the Gaza Strip. Measures included a demographic checklist, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale and the Depression Self‐rating Scale for Children. Results Children came from large families (73.2% had eight or more siblings), mainly worked to increase family income, worked an average 6.8 h per day (range 1–16), and only 37.1% had regular rest. Ratings of mental health problems were predicted by different factors, i.e. total difficulties scores by poor friendship relationships and lack of health insurance; anxiety scores by selling in the streets, working to help family, low family income and lack of health insurance; and depression scores by parents' dissatisfaction with the job and longer working hours. Conclusions Mental health problems of children in labour are likely to be associated with socio economic determinants, as well as factors related to their under age employment. Policy, legislation and preventive programmes from statutory and voluntary agencies should adopt an integrated approach in meeting their mental health needs, by enhancing protective factors such as return to school.     

Adolescents from low‐income families in Hong Kong and unhealthy eating behaviours: Implications for health and social care practitioners

The development of dietary preferences of adolescents involves a complex interplay of individual behaviours and environmental factors. Interpersonal factors—such as peer influences and unpleasant school experiences—and institutional factors—such as school rules and policies—are closely associated with unhealthy eating of adolescents. Family support and guidance are also crucial in influencing adolescents’ eating habits. However, the low social status, low educational levels, and low household incomes of disadvantaged parents can markedly prevent their children from establishing healthy eating habits. Therefore, adolescents from low‐income families are more likely to engage in unhealthy dietary behaviours and hence to be more susceptible to diet‐related health problems. However, few studies have addressed the difficulties associated with inculcating healthy eating habits among adolescents from low‐income families. Therefore, to investigate the barriers to adopting healthy eating habits, this study adopted a qualitative research approach and conducted five focus‐group semistructured interviews with 30 junior‐ and senior‐form students of a secondary school in Hong Kong, all of whom were from low‐income families. The results revealed skipping meals because of poverty, following irregular meal patterns on school holidays, receiving poor guidance from family and peers, perceiving healthy eating as expensive and unappealing, and geographical inaccessibility to healthy food all prevented these students from healthy eating. These mutually reinforcing factors were interlocking with the economic strain that was experienced by the participants and their families. In particular, the stereotype of “healthful food is expensive” was strong. Therefore, we suggest students from low‐income families should be enabled to understand that healthy eating is not necessarily expensive. The participants’ stereotypes about healthy food was handed down by their parents. Such stereotypes, together with the low health literacy, influence the food preparation habits of the parents. Therefore, parents should be made to aware that healthful food can also be affordable.     

Parents’ attitudes towards their children with cerebral palsy

A negative attitude towards disability from family not only impacts upon a child directly, but also adds to the existing stress levels of a family. It can be concluded the parental attitudes are assumed to be associated with the psychosocial development of children. The aim of this study was to assess parents’ attitudes towards their children with cerebral palsy (CP), and to examine the relationship between parental attitudes, emotional and behavioural problems, and other factors related to a child with CP and their parents. Parents of 70 children with CP (aged 6–13 years) completed questionnaires assessing parental attitudes and the Social and Emotional Behavioural Problematic scale. The results indicated that most parents had moderate attitudes towards their children with CP, although 40.7% of parents held negative attitudes. The results also revealed that there were statistically significant moderate negative correlations between parental attitudes, internalising behavioural problems and child order, and significant moderate positive correlations between parental attitudes, level of education, and type of school. Regression analysis revealed that internalising behaviour problems, aggression, child order, level of disability, parental income, and type of school contributed significantly to the variation in the prediction of parental attitudes towards their children with CP. Based on the findings, appropriate recommendations are suggested.     

Rehabilitation for children with cerebral palsy in rural Cambodia: parental perceptions of family-centred practices

Background Rehabilitation service providers in Cambodia are increasingly adopting family‐centred practices when working with children with cerebral palsy and their families. This study examined the perceptions of parents living in rural Cambodia regarding family‐centred rehabilitation practices. Methods This qualitative study used in‐depth semi‐structured individual and small group interviews with a convenience sample of 24 parents of children with cerebral palsy from three rural provinces. Participants were drawn from Cambodia Trust's client database and had been involved in a rehabilitation planning process which incorporated family‐centred practices. Results Twenty‐four parents and carers of children with cerebral palsy aged 3–12 years were interviewed. Almost all parents valued family‐centred practices in rehabilitation, with many of the needs and preferences of parents living in rural Cambodia similar to those of parents in Western contexts. Conclusions Family‐centred approaches to paediatric rehabilitation were found to be valued in and appropriate for a rural Cambodian context. Social and cultural mechanisms to be considered when adapting a Western, family‐centred model of rehabilitation planning to the rural Cambodian context include the hierarchical nature of Cambodian culture, the emphasis on group relational patterns rather than individual needs and the context of chronic poverty.     

The effect of maternal employment during preschool years on school readiness

Many children referred because of “learning disability” have mothers in full‐time employment. This study was undertaken to examine the effect of maternal employment on school readiness.

One hundred and seven children were studied. Forty‐six were the offspring of women who had not gone out to work since the birth of the child (group A). The mothers of the other 61 had worked for 1 year or more during the lifetime of the child (group B). The mother of each child completed a detailed questionnaire. Each child was subjected to standardized tests of reasoning, numerical ability, Gestalt, verbal comprehension, eye‐hand co‐ordination, visual and auditory perception and IQ. Groups A and B were compared with regard to marital status of parents, their educational attainments, family size, ordinal position of the index child and years of nursery school experience.

Educational attainments of both fathers and mothers were significantly higher in group A and children had spent significantly longer at nursery school. Group B (working mothers) had a predictably higher incidence of single parents. Comparison of results showed no significant difference between groups A and B for 6 of the 8 tests administered. Group B results did not differ significantly when divided into categories according to years of maternal employment. The study suggests that there is no direct relationship between maternal employment and maturity at school entry.     

河南某乡农村留守初中生身心亚健康状况及影响因素

目的了解河南某乡农村留守初中生身心亚健康现状,探讨留守初中生身心亚健康的主要影响因素。方法选取河南农村2所中学的721名学生作为研究对象,其中留守学生373名,非留守学生348名;对其采用《青少年亚健康多维评定问卷》(MSQA)和自编的留守初中生一般情况调查表进行调查。结果留守学生身心亚健康、躯体亚健康、心理亚健康及各维度得分均高于非留守学生(P0.05);留守学生的身心亚健康、躯体亚健康和心理亚健康报告率分别为30.6%、37.0%和40.2%。不同类型留守学生的身心亚健康状况:女生的身心亚健康、躯体亚健康和心理亚健康均差于男生,P0.05);在身心亚健康和心理亚健康方面,家里3个子女及更多的差于2个子女及以下;留守时间长的学生差于留守时间短的学生;父母双方外出打工组学生差于父母单方外出组学生(P值均0.05)。多因素非条件logistic回归分析结果显示,影响留守初中生身心亚健康的因素主要包括性别、留守时间、孩子数量、父母外出打工情况、父母关心程度、与父母交流的难易度、看护人意愿、朋友的多少。结论留守初中生的身心健康状况较差,并存在很多相关危险因素,相关部门应及时采取针对性干预措施,以提高该乡留守中学生的健康水平。     

Child labor in the artisan sector of Morocco: determinants and health effects

Despite the fact that child labour is regulated through the work code, and the convention on child rights adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1989 and ratified by Morocco in 1993, multiple surveys have shown that children are often put to work at a very early age and few employers respect the work conditions laid out in the texts. The aim of this study was to assess the different situations of child labour in the handicraft sector, the reasons and the problems surrounding it, to study its repercussions on health and to propose several preventive measures. From March to July 1997, a retrospective cohort study of working children and children in school was carried out in a small neighbourhood of Casablanca. We interviewed and examined a random sample of two hundred children working in the handicraft sector. The health status of these children was compared to that of the same sample size of children in school, from the same age group and socio-economic status. Each subject was given a standardized questionnaire that was translated into dialectal Arabic and administered by a occupational health doctor and a communications specialist. The results of the study have pointed out the small school network of the working children, the painful conditions of work and the important consequences on their health state with a wide prevalence of pathologies higher than for the children attending school. The misery in addition of the rural exodus, the no-adapted educative and socio-economic systems, the splitting of the family unit often go to generate a submissive childhood without defense and "ready to be used".     

Preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders: the impact on families and the supports available to them

As more children are diagnosed at a younger age with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), a new population of families is growing requiring services. Little is known about their characteristics and need for support. Instead, past research has tended to focus on specialist assessments and interventions. Over 100 parents with a child aged under five years of age were interviewed individually at home using a semi‐structured questionnaire and standard rating scales. Although all children had been given a confirmed diagnosis of ASD at specialist community clinics, wide variations existed in the children’s developmental difficulties and in the characteristics of their families. A majority of families reported marked impacts on family life with increased levels of parental stress. However, the amount and type of professional support available to families were not related to child or family characteristics. Family‐centred intervention and support services are required and they should be available to parents irrespective of their child having a confirmed diagnosis.     

Parents' views about pre‐school immunization: an interview study in southern England

Background National Health Service immunization statistics for England indicate that uptake of the first plus second dose of measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine, and pre‐school booster against diphtheria, tetanus, polio and pertussis, is lower than for the primary course alone. This qualitative study aimed to explore parents' views about pre‐school immunization and to identify possible reasons for lower pre‐school uptake compared with the primary course. Methods Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with 21 parents of children aged 2–5 years from 19 family units. The parents were recruited from nine playgroups and pre‐schools in three locations in southern England. Data collection and analysis were guided by a modified Grounded Theory approach. Results Although most parents believed pre‐school immunization to be important and most intended to immunise, a minority questioned whether it was necessary based on their understanding of the duration of protection provided by the primary course. Compared with primary immunization, parents typically received no information about pre‐school doses prior to their invitation to attend and had little or no contact with healthcare professionals. Other barriers included minor illness, apprehension about taking an older child for vaccinations and work or childcare commitments. Conclusions Parents reported uncertainties, anxieties and time constraints, all of which may contribute to poor attendance for pre‐school immunization. These findings have important implications for providing parents with timely information about boosters and the two‐dose MMR programme. They indicate the potential value of playgroup or pre‐school involvement and the need for improved communication with children about immunization.     

脑瘫患儿家长相关知识知晓率和需求调查

目的:了解脑性瘫痪(简称脑瘫)患儿家长对脑瘫相关知识知晓情况和需求。方法:随机抽取确诊脑瘫患儿的家庭并随机抽取等例数、条件类似的健康儿童的家庭作对照,采用统一的调查问卷,对其家长调查脑瘫相关知识知晓情况和需求;对脑瘫患儿的家长进行患儿诊疗前家长对脑瘫知识知晓情况的回顾调查。共调查家长426例,其中脑瘫组213例,父亲66例,母亲147例,文化程度为初中及初中以下54.9%,高中及高中以上45.1%;对照组213例,父亲71例,母亲142例,文化程度为初中及初中以下50.7%,高中及高中以上49.3%。结果:脑瘫知识知晓率脑瘫组(71.83%)高于对照组(6.10%),有显著性差异(P<0.05);脑瘫组知识均分(64.77分)高于对照组(37.24分);脑瘫组在患儿诊疗前知识均分(35.01分)与现在对照组知识均分(37.24分)无明显差异,提示脑瘫知识是在诊疗接触过程中获得。两组均有50%以上家长表示对脑瘫知识的需求,80%以上家长表示对预防知识需求,50%以上家长表示对"配备社区医疗服务中心专业技术医护人员"让脑瘫患儿就地长期康复治疗的意向。结论:广泛开展脑瘫防治知识的健康教育,健全社区医疗服务中心,有利于脑瘫的防治。     

武汉市975名4～14岁儿童行为问题调查与分析

为了解城市儿童心理发育状况,促进儿童心理健康发展.方法 采用Achenbach’s儿童行为量表中国标准化版,调查了武汉市975名4～14岁儿童.结果 行为问题检出率为11.5%.儿童行为问题影响因素为父母间关系、父母文化程度、父母对子女的期望、管教方法、教育态度、居住地区社会风气、居住条件、学习环境、学习成绩、父母是否给孩子购买图书等10个因素有关,对其中居住条件、学习成绩、父母间关系进行了分析.结论 要减少儿童行为问题的发生,必须采取家庭、学校、社会综合措施,从围产期开始建立心身保健卡,开展父母学校、心理咨询门诊,利用各种宣传媒介进行心理卫生知识教育,提高家庭职能,尽量改善住房条件,为孩子创造安静、舒适的学习和生活环境,才能获得满意效果.     

艾滋病致孤儿童学习现状分析

目的了解艾滋病致孤儿童的学习现状，为进一步加强以家庭和学校为基础的支持提供线索。方法选取5个中国政府和联合国儿童基金会合作艾滋病致孤儿童关怀项目县，对251名6-14岁艾滋病致孤儿童进行问卷调查，并对其中10人进行个人深入访谈。结果23.1％的儿童没有上学，其中31.0％在父／母去世前辍学，主要原因是经济困难、给家里干活、照顾生病父母、跟不上学习等。上学儿童中，29．5％的儿童学习成绩在父母去世后下降，主要原因有父母生病去世期间缺课、担心父／母病情、生活困难导致家庭作业条件差，无人管教、家务活多、上课不能集中注意力等。结论父／母患艾滋病或死于艾滋病后儿童的学习情况发生了变化，他们在父母生病期间和父母去世后需要经济和社会心理支持。     

Does Involved Fathering Produce a Larger Total Workload for Fathers Than for Mothers? Evidence from Norway

Objective

To compare mothers' and fathers' total workloads within couples with different work‐time arrangements in a social democratic welfare state (Norway) and explore possible changes in the 1990s and 2000s.

Background

Women's double workload in families with two full‐time jobs has been well documented. However, some argue that fathers, too, may experience the double burden of market and domestic work as they become more involved in parenting.

Method

The data are from the Norwegian Time Use Surveys conducted in 1990, 2000, and 2010 among representative samples of the adult population. A subsample of coupled other‐sex‐parents with at least one child younger than age 20 years were used in the present study. Total workload is the sum of paid and unpaid work activities reported in a time diary. Standard multivariate ordinary least square regressions were used to explore gender differences.

Results

Full‐time work for both parents entailed approximately equal total workloads for fathers and mothers. However, fathers' total workload exceeded mothers' in full‐time and part‐time couples with school‐aged children.

Conclusion

Despite equal total workloads and reduced specialization, mothers still do less paid work and more family work than fathers in couples where both work full‐time in Norway. This is partly related to the gender‐segregated labor market. In full‐time and part‐time couples with school‐aged children, fathers' longer working hours are not fully offset by more family work for mothers.

Implications

Work–family reconciliation policies promoting mothers' employment and fathers' family work may have the potential to reduce gender imbalances in parent's total workloads and moderate gendered specialization patterns.     

Notes on Contributors

It is now widely realized that child sexual abuse is an all too common crime against children, resulting in long term damage to victims and heavy costs to the community. It is also realized that much abuse could have been prevented if children had been given basic information about acceptable and unacceptable touching, secrecy about touching and norms of adult‐child behaviour.

Parents representing 250 families, caring for 565 children aged 3‐12 were interviewed to find out what parents tell their children to protect them from sexual molestation.

Three quarters of all parents told their children nothing and most of those who thought that they had given information had only given hints. Furthermore, this “information” was passed on only after a traumatic event had already occurred.

Parents revealed an inadequate knowledge of the dangers to children and a desire for school and preschool programs to remedy the deficit.     

Summer work and injury among middle school students, aged 10-14 years

Background: Little information exists on injury and factors associated with injury in working youth aged 10–14 years. Most studies do not involve children younger than 15.

Methods: A cross-sectional anonymous survey was administered to middle school students in five school districts and one large urban school in October 2001.

Results: Of the 3189 working middle school students who responded to the survey, the majority were employed in informal job settings, such as working for someone in a home, newspaper delivery, and working on family farms or in family businesses. Overall, 18% of children reported being injured at work. Of those injured, 26% reported that their injury was severe enough to affect their activities for more than three days. Variables that were associated with injury included having a "near-miss" incident at work (AOR 6.61, 95% CI 4.92 to 8.89), having a co-worker injured (AOR 2.65, 95% CI 1.95 to 3.60), and being asked to do something dangerous (AOR 2.25, 95% CI 1.61 to 3.14).

Conclusions: Children are working and being injured in jobs that are not covered by existing child labour laws. Injury rates in non-covered occupations are high, warranting review of current laws.