Postoperative Externalization of Deep Brain Stimulation Leads Does Not Increase Infection Risk

ObjectivesExternalization of deep brain stimulation (DBS) leads is performed to allow electrophysiological recording from implanted electrodes as well as assessment of clinical response to trial stimulation before implantable pulse generator (IPG) insertion. Hypothetically, lead externalization provides a route for inoculation and subsequent infection of hardware, though this has not been established definitively in the literature. We sought to determine if lead externalization affects the risk of infection in DBS surgery.Materials and MethodsWe present our center’s experience of lead externalization and surgical site infection (SSI) in DBS surgery for movement disorders. Patients were divided into two cohorts: one in which leads were not externalized and IPGs were implanted at the time of electrode insertion, and one in which leads were externalized for six days while patients underwent electrophysiological recording from DBS electrodes for research. We compare baseline characteristics of these two cohorts and their SSI rates.ResultsInfective complications were experienced by 3/82 (3.7%) patients overall with one (1.2%) requiring complete hardware removal. These occurred in 1/36 (2.7%) in the externalized cohort and 2/46 (4.3%) in the nonexternalized cohort. The incidence of infection between the two cohorts was not significantly different (p = 1, two-tailed Fisher’s exact test). This lack of significant difference persisted when baseline variation between the cohorts in age, hardware manufacturer, and indication for DBS were corrected by excluding patients implanted for dystonia, none of whom underwent externalization. We present and discuss in detail each of the three cases of infection.ConclusionsOur data suggest that externalization of leads does not increase the risk of infective complications in DBS surgery. Lead externalization is a safe procedure which can provide a substrate for unique neurophysiological studies to advance knowledge and therapy of disorders treated with DBS.     

Antibiotic impregnated catheter coverage of deep brain stimulation leads facilitates lead preservation after hardware infection

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has become a reliable and effective treatment for many disorders. However, the risk of long-term hardware-related complications is notable, and most concerning is hardware-related infections. Given the risk of hardware removal in the setting of infection, we retrospectively examined the implementation of a novel technique using antibiotic covered catheter protection of DBS leads after infection. The effect on hardware salvage and ease of reimplantation of the DBS extension and implantable pulse generator (IPG) was examined. A total of nine (9%) out of 100 DBS patients met the inclusion criteria with 11 DBS hardware-related infections at either the frontal, parietal, or IPG sites, from June 2003 to November 2010, at our institution. Subsequent to the initial patient in the series, a total of eight patients had placement of a short segment (approx. 4 cm long) of antibiotic impregnated catheter (Bactiseal, Codman, Johnson & Johnson, Raynham, MA, USA) over the distal end of the DBS leads at the parietal incision. Seven of these eight patients presented with pus and deep tissue infections around the hardware at either the frontal, parietal, or chest incisions. In seven of these eight patients (87.5%) we were able to protect and salvage their DBS leads without need for removal. In conclusion, this novel technique provides a simple reimplantation operation, with a decreased risk of DBS lead damage. It may improve the preservation of DBS leads when hardware infection occurs, is inexpensive, and confers no additional risks to patients.     

Surgical and Hardware Complications of Deep Brain Stimulation—A Single Surgeon Experience of 519 Cases Over 20 Years

ObjectiveDeep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery has its own set of risks and complications. This study from a single center and a single surgeon analyzes various risk factors for complications and tries to establish if there is a learning curve effect in minimizing the complications.Materials and MethodsA retrospective analysis of 519 patients (1024 leads) who underwent DBS surgery and 232 patients who underwent implantable pulse generator replacement (IPG), by a single surgeon, between the years 1999 and 2019 was performed. Perioperative and hardware related complications were evaluated.ResultsThe follow-up period ranged from six months to 20 years. Surgery-related complications occurred in 46 (8.9%) cases which included confusion in 31 (5.98%), intracerebral hemorrhage in 7 (1.3%), vasovagal attack in 3 (0.58%), respiratory distress in 2 (0.38%), postoperative aggressiveness in 1 (0.19%), and blepharospasm in 2 (0.38%) patients. Complications related to the DBS hardware were found in 35 cases, including erosion and infection in 22 (2.95%), inaccurate lead placement or migration in 6 (0.6%) lead fracture/extension wire failure in 2 (0.26%), IPG malfunction in 2 (0.26%), and hardware discomfort in 3 (0.4%) cases. In three patients, one lead was repositioned. In cases of infection, 87% of patients had either partial or complete removal of hardware. There was no mortality. The complications were analyzed for every 100 DBS procedures. There was a significant drop in the percentage of complications in from 23% in the first 100 cases to 7% in the last 100 cases (p < 0.0001).ConclusionConfusion remains the most frequent operative and perioperative complication. Erosion and infection of the surgical site represents the most frequent hardware complication. DBS surgery is safe and the complication rates are acceptably low. The complication rate also decreases with cumulative years of experience, demonstrating a learning curve effect.     

Increased risk of lead fracture and migration in dystonia compared with other movement disorders following deep brain stimulation.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) therapy is a continually expanding field in the functional neurosurgical treatment of movement disorders. However, the occurrence of adverse events related to implanted hardware cannot be overlooked. We report on a specific feature noted in our experience of DBS-related complications. From 1998 until present we have found an overall rate of 5.3% of DBS electrode lead dysfunction (out of 133 patients) in our series (slipped leads 2.3%, lead fracture 3.8%). Interestingly, all of these failures occurred in dystonia patients (18.4% of all dystonia patients and 9.2% of all electrodes). We postulate on mechanisms that may explain why these complications predominate in this group of patients.     

221例脑深部电刺激术后和硬件相关并发症分析

目的 总结分析脑深部电刺激术(deep brain stimulation,DBS)后和硬件相关并发症发生原因及改进方法.方法 回顾性总结221例DBS术后病人和硬件相关并发症的发生情况.2例病人凶颅内出血没有统计在内.219例病人共植入328侧电极.结果 随访时间3-35个月,平均16.1个月.219例病人共发生和DBS硬件相关的并发症26例(11.9%)涉及21侧电极(6.4%).切口感染和(或)破溃12例(5.5%),异物反应2例(0.9%),电极短路和断路4例(1.8%),脑脊液漏3例(1.4%),电极移位5例(2.3%).其中切口感染和(或)破溃的发生率最高.结论 通过对DBS和硬件相关并发症的分析表明上述并发症的发生率是十分可观的.预防减少并发症的发生和改进处理方法 可以使DBS更充分地发挥其治疗作用.     

Complications of vagal nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: A single center longitudinal study of 143 patients

PurposeTo longitudinally study surgical and hardware complications to vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) treatment in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy.MethodsIn a longitudinal retrospective study, we analyzed surgical and hardware complications in 143 patients (81 men and 62 women) who between 1994 and 2010 underwent implantation of a VNS-device for drug-resistant epilepsy. The mean follow-up time was 62 ± 46 months and the total number of patient years 738.Results251 procedures were performed on 143 patients. 16.8% of the patients were afflicted by complications related to surgery and 16.8% suffered from hardware malfunctions. Surgical complications were: superficial infection in 3.5%, deep infection needing explantation in 3.5%, vocal cord palsy in 5.6%, which persisted in at least 0.7% for over one year, and other complications in 5.6%. Hardware-related complications were: lead fracture in 11.9% of patients, disconnection in 2.8%, spontaneous turn-off in 1.4% and stimulator malfunction in 1.4%. We noted a tendency to different survival times between the two most commonly used lead models as well as a tendency to increased infection rate with increasing number of stimulator replacements.ConclusionIn this series we report on surgical and hardware complications from our 16 years of experience with VNS treatment. Infection following insertion of the VNS device and vocal cord palsy due to damage to the vagus nerve are the most serious complications related to the surgery. Avoiding unnecessary reoperations in order to reduce the appearances of these complications are of great importance. It is therefore essential to minimize technical malfunctions that will lead to additional surgery. Further studies are needed to evaluate the possible superiority of the modified leads.     

Deep brain stimulation in Parkinson’s disease

Throughout the past decade, there has been a marked increase in surgical therapies, primarily deep brain stimulation (DBS), for the treatment of advanced Parkinson’s disease (PD). DBS of the thalamus has been shown to be effective in reducing parkinsonian tremor; however, it is not the treatment of choice for PD given the progression of other symptoms such as rigidity and bradykinesia. Stimulation of the globus pallidus or the subthalamic nucleus is safe and efficacious in the long-term treatment of all cardinal symptoms of PD, and they are currently the surgeries of choice. Serious adverse events with DBS can occur in 1% to 2% of patients, infection in 5% to 8% of patients, and hardware complications in approximately 25% of patients. Complications associated with DBS are related to the experience of the surgical center. Referring physicians and patients should be aware of the number of surgical procedures and complication rates of any prospective surgical center.     

Pallidal surgery for the treatment of primary generalized dystonia: long-term follow-up

OBJECTIVE: To describe the results and long-term follow-up after functional surgery of the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) in 10 patients with primary generalized dystonia. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Nine of the 10 patients were positive for the DYT1 gene mutation. Bilateral deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the GPi was performed in three cases, bilateral pallidotomy in two, and combined surgery (unilateral GPi lesion with contralateral stimulation) in the remaining five. All patients were evaluated with the Burke-Fahn-Marsden dystonia scale (BFMDS) before, immediately after surgery, at 3 weeks, 3 and 6 months and then yearly. Follow up time ranged from 15 to 105 months (mean: 66.1 months) with six patients having more than 6 years follow up. RESULTS: All patients improved after surgery. All patients with unilateral or bilateral DBS experienced an immediate improvement before starting stimulation. The magnitude of this initial micro lesion effect did not predict the magnitude of the long-term benefit of DBS. The mean decrease in the in the BFMDS was 34%, 55%, and 65% in the movement scale; and 32%, 48%, and 49% in the disability scale for patients with bilateral pallidal DBS, combined unilateral DBS and contralateral pallidotomy, and bilateral pallidotomy, respectively. Worsening of dystonia after a plateau of sustained benefit was observed in three patients. Two patients required multiple pallidal surgeries. Adverse events included: permanent anarthria (1), misplacement of the electrode requiring further surgery (2), scalp infection (1), and hardware related problems (3). CONCLUSIONS: This long-term follow up study confirms the beneficial effect of pallidal DBS or pallidotomy in primary generalized dystonia. In addition, our results extent previous observations by showing that, in these patients, (1) the microlesion effect of DBS is not predictive of long-term benefit; (2) combined DBS with contralateral pallidotomy appears to be more effective than bilateral pallidal DBS; and (3) dystonia can reappear after an initial good response during long term follow up.     

脑深部电刺激术的手术并发症及防治

目的 探讨脑深部电极刺激术(DBS)手术并发症的产生原因及防治方法.方法 对278例(531侧)接受DBS治疗的患者发生的手术并发症及其处理方法进行回顾性分析.结果 DBS手术并发症的发生主要与手术操作、治疗靶点的选择与定位、刺激器装置等方面有关.其中与手术相关的并发症为脑内血肿、术后癫痫、脑脊液漏等;与刺激靶点选择和定佗相关的并发症有异动症、构音障碍、眼睑下垂等;与植入装置相关的并发症有电极折断、电极移位、装置故障等.结论 严格与细致的手术操作、选择正确的手术方式、精细的术后程控可有效地减少和预防DBS手术并发症的发生.     

运动障碍病脑深部电刺激手术的并发症分析

目的分析运动障碍病脑深部电刺激(DBS)手术的并发症,探讨其原因及预防和治疗措施。方法给615例运动障碍病患者进行了1008根DBS手术,行单侧DBS手术的患者222例,双侧手术者393例。其中帕金森病患者566例,原发性震颤患者18例,肌张力障碍患者11例,痉挛性斜颈患者7例,抽动症患者9例,Meige综合征2例,其他2例。回顾性分析与手术操作或硬件故障相关的并发症。结果 615例患者术后随访1~3年,出现手术操作或硬件相关并发症的患者45例;其中出血4例,植入脉冲发生器(IPG)周围皮下积液10例,感染10例,电极位置不好9例,电极断裂10例,急性水肿1例,IPG不适重新植入1例。结论手术操作中诸多技术环节与术后并发症有关联。手术者经验的提高,可以明显减少手术并发症的发生。     

Use of a Pericranial Flap Technique for Deep Brain Stimulation Hardware Protection and Improved Cosmesis

ObjectivesDeep brain stimulation (DBS) has become an established neuromodulation therapy; however, surgical site complications such as hardware skin erosion remain an important risk and can predispose to infection, requiring explantation of the system. Nuances of surgical technique can affect wound healing, cosmetic outcome, comfort, and risk of infection. In this study, we describe our experience with a layered closure technique using a vascularized pericranial flap for improving cosmesis and protection of the implanted hardware against skin erosion and infection.Materials and MethodsWe retrospectively reviewed 636 individuals (746 lead implantations) who underwent DBS surgery by a single academic neurosurgeon between 2001 and 2020. A layered pericranial flap closure technique for the burr-hole and connector sites was instituted in 2015. We assessed the effects of a multimodal infection prevention approach that included the pericranial flap on hardware complication rates compared with the premultimodality cohort, and we report the nuances of the technique.ResultsIn our institutional experience, we found that implementation of a pericranial flap closure technique can enhance the subjective cosmetic result at the burr-hole cover site and increase patient comfort and satisfaction. In addition, we found a decrease in hardware infection rates in the current cohort with a multimodal infection prevention regimen that includes the pericranial-flap technique (n = 256, 2015–2020 period) to 1.2% (p = 0.006), from 6.9% in the earlier cohort (n = 490, 2001–2015 period).ConclusionsThe report highlights the potential of a pericranial-flap closure technique as a surgical adjunct to improve DBS surgical site healing and cosmesis and may, as part of a multimodal strategy, contribute to decreased risk of skin breakdown and hardware infection.     

Deep brain stimulation hardware complications: The role of electrode impedance and current measurements

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an effective therapy for advanced Parkinson's disease patients. Successful DBS outcomes depend on appropriate patient selection, surgical placement of the lead, intact hardware systems, optimal programming, and medical management. Despite its importance, there is little guidance in reference to hardware monitoring, hardware troubleshooting, and patient management. Technical manuals produced by the hardware manufacturer (Medtronic, Minneapolis, MN) are not presented in an applied clinical format, making impedance and current measurements difficult to interpret when the results are not straightforward. We present four patients with evolving DBS hardware complications that occurred during long‐term follow‐up, that shaped our clinical protocol for long‐term care management and hardware troubleshooting. © 2007 Movement Disorder Society     

Simulation to Locate Burr Hole Sites in a Patient for Deep Brain Stimulation Surgery and Clipping of Intracranial Aneurysm

Background and Objective: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) candidates with neurologic diseases such as unruptured aneurysm present additional challenges to neurosurgeons when craniotomy must precede DBS surgery. Such craniotomy may potentially overlap with intended burr hole sites for the later insertion of DBS electrodes, and the skin incision for craniotomy may lie very close to or intersect with that for the burr holes. We report here a case of forehead craniotomy prior to DBS surgery in which we employed a neuronavigation system to simulate locations for the craniotomy and burr holes. Method: A 62‐year‐old male patient with Parkinson's disease was a candidate for DBS. He also had an aneurysm and was planned first to undergo frontal craniotomy for clipping before the DBS surgery. The locations of the craniotomy, burr holes, and skin incisions were therefore simulated using a neuronavigation system during craniotomy. Results: Two weeks after the craniotomy, the patient underwent DBS surgery. Planning software confirmed the absence of cortical veins beneath the entry points of tentative burr holes and aided trajectory planning. The DBS surgery was performed without the interference of the burr holes and head pins and the craniotomy. Conclusion: Simulation of the locations of craniotomy and burr holes using a neuronavigation system proved valuable in the present case of frontal craniotomy before DBS surgery.     

Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson’s disease

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an effective surgical treatment for advanced Parkinson’s disease (PD), with significant advantages in morbidity-mortality and quality of life when compared to lesion techniques such as thalamotomy and/or pallidotomy. The procedure is indicated in patients with severe resting tremor, unresponsive to conventional medical treatment or with motor complications. The most commonly reported complications in the intra- and post-surgical period are aborted procedure, misplaced leads, intracranial haemorrhage, seizures and hardware complications, whereas in the long-term period, cognitive and psychiatric complications can be observed. The most important eligibility criteria for DBS are: a correct diagnosis of idiopathic PD, severity of illness, a consistent levodopa response and absence of cognitive impairment. Chronological age and mood disorders may be relative contraindications to be individually evaluated. Tremor, rigidity dystonias and dyskinesias improve dramatically after DBS; freezing, postural instability and falls remain unchanged, whereas verbal fluency and dysarthria are known to worsen.     

Deep brain stimulation of anterior nucleus thalami disrupts sleep in epilepsy patients

In view of the regulatory function of the thalamus in the sleep‐wake cycle, the impact of deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the anterior nucleus thalami (ANT) on sleep was assessed in a small consecutive cohort of epilepsy patients with standardized polysomnography (PSG). In nine patients treated with ANT‐DBS (voltage 5 V, frequency 145 Hz, cyclic mode), the number of arousals during stimulation and nonstimulation periods, neuropsychiatric symptoms (npS), and seizure frequency were determined. Electroclinical arousals were triggered in 14.0 to 67.0% (mean 42.4 ± SD 16.8%) of all deep brain stimuli. Six patients reported npS. Nocturnal DBS voltages were reduced in eight patients (one patient without npS refused) and PSGs were repeated. Electroclinical arousals occurred between 1.4 and 6.7 (mean 3.3 ± 1.7) times more frequently during stimulation periods compared to nonstimulation periods; the number of arousals positively correlated with the level of DBS voltage (range 1 V to 5 V) (Spearman′s rank coefficient 0.53121; p < 0.05). No patient experienced seizure deterioration and four patients reported remission of npS. This case‐cohort study provides evidence that ANT‐DBS interrupts sleep in a voltage‐dependent manner, thus putatively resulting in an increase of npS. Reduction of nocturnal DBS voltage seems to lead to improvement of npS without hampering efficacy of ANT‐DBS.     

Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an implanted electrical device that modulates specific targets in the brain resulting in symptomatic improvement in a particular neurologic disease, most commonly a movement disorder. It is preferred over previously used lesioning procedures due to its reversibility, adjustability, and ability to be used bilaterally with a good safety profile. Risks of DBS include intracranial bleeding, infection, malposition, and hardware issues, such migration, disconnection, or malfunction, but the risk of each of these complications is low—generally ≤ 5% at experienced, large-volume centers. It has been used widely in essential tremor, Parkinson’s disease, and dystonia when medical treatment becomes ineffective, intolerable owing to side effects, or causes motor complications. Brain targets implanted include the thalamus (most commonly for essential tremor), subthalamic nucleus (most commonly for Parkinson’s disease), and globus pallidus (Parkinson’s disease and dystonia), although new targets are currently being explored. Future developments include brain electrodes that can steer current directionally and systems capable of “closed loop” stimulation, with systems that can record and interpret regional brain activity and modify stimulation parameters in a clinically meaningful way. New, image-guided implantation techniques may have advantages over traditional DBS surgery.     

采集大隐静脉为冠状动脉旁路移植桥血管：间断小切口与传统长切口的优缺点比较

背景：在冠状动脉旁路移植过程中,大隐静脉仍为最常用的桥血管材料,但采集难度较高。 目的：探讨冠状动脉旁路移植中使用间断小切口及传统长切口采集大隐静脉的优缺点。 方法：纳入258例采集大隐静脉的冠状动脉旁路移植患者,其中间断小切口法采集大隐静脉112例,传统长切口法146例。观察采集大隐静脉时间、切口长度、缝合时间、总手术时间及术后切口并发症发生率。 结果：间断小切口组采集大隐静脉时间长于传统长切口组(P < 0.05)。切口长度、缝合时间明显短于传统长切口组(P < 0.01),总手术时间两组比较,差异无显著性意义(P > 0.05)。术后12 d腿部切口间断小切口组并发症发生率明显小于传统长切口组(P < 0.01),在合并糖尿病患者中,传统长切口组腿部切口并发症发生率明显高于间断小切口组(P < 0.01)。提示,虽然间断小切口采集大隐静脉时间较长,但腿部并发症发生率明显减少,尤其适合于冠心病合并糖尿病患者。     

Deep brain stimulation in the management of Parkinson's disease

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a neurosurgical treatment of Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders. This surgical technique is applied to three brain targets: the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus (Vim), the globus pallidus internus (Gpi) and the subthalamic nucleus (STN). Vim DBS improves contralateral parkinsonian tremor. STN and GPi DBS improve contralateral bradykinesia, rigidity, parkinsonian tremor and also levodopa-induced dyskinesia. There is little comparative data between bilateral STN and bilateral GPi procedures but the improvement with bilateral STN DBS seems more pronounced than with bilateral GPi DBS. Moreover, only STN BDS allows a significant decrease of antiparkinsonian medication. The other advantage of STN over GPi DBS is the lower consumption of current. The DBS procedure contrary to ablative surgery has the unique advantage of reversibility and adjustability over time. Patients with no behavioral, mood and cognitive impairments benefit the most from bilateral STN DBS. The stimulation-induced adverse effects related to DBS are reversible and adjustable. More specific adverse effects related do hardware are: disconnection, lead breaking, erosion or infection. The disadvantage of DBS is a relatively high cost. The setting of stimulation parameters to achieve the best clinical result may be very time-consuming. Most authors agree that DBS is a safer and more favorable procedure than ablative surgery.     

Deep brain stimulation in a patient on immunosuppressive therapy after renal transplant

We performed thalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery to treat severe essential tremor in a 36 year-old woman who had undergone cadaveric renal transplant four years earlier. She was receiving chronic immunosuppressive therapy. Post-operative healing was normal and there have been no infections of the DBS hardware. There were no peri-operative complications and no rejection of the transplanted kidney. She remains on the same systemic immunosuppressive agents as pre-operatively: prednisone, cyclosporine, and mycophenolate mofetil (CellCept). DBS surgery may be safely performed in carefully selected patients on systemic immunosuppression after renal transplant.     

开颅术后切口愈合不良的治疗及预后观察

目的探讨开颅术后切口愈合不良的治疗及预后。方法回顾性分析2014年1月至2020年11月首都医科大学附属北京天坛医院神经外科神经肿瘤六病房行择期手术后发生切口愈合不良的22例患者的临床资料,占同期择期手术患者的0.6%(22/3667)。根据切口愈合不良的累及范围和有无皮肤缺损进行分组,分别为切口愈合不良但无皮肤缺损组(A1组)、切口愈合不良伴脑脊液漏但无皮肤缺损组(A2组)、切口愈合不良且存在皮肤缺损组(B组)、复杂切口愈合不良伴骨髓炎组(C组)、复杂切口愈合不良伴骨髓炎以及硬膜外积脓或脑脓肿组(D组)。A1和A2组给予探查切口并一期缝合;B组给予切口换药并二期缝合;C组和D组给予清创、去骨瓣后缝合切口。定期通过电话或门诊复查的方式随访患者切口愈合情况。结果22例患者中,A1组7例,A2组7例,B组4例,C组1例,D组3例。22例患者中,D组1例复发颅咽管瘤患者因继发皮下积脓、脑脓肿死亡,余21例患者均完成3~60个月的临床随访。A2组1例经枕下远外侧开颅术后患者脑脊液漏持续2个月,因脑积水在外院行脑室-腹腔分流术。至末次随访,21例患者的切口全部愈合,中位愈合时间为14 d(7~42 d)。结论对开颅术后切口愈合不良的患者,根据切口的累及范围和有无皮肤缺损进行个体化治疗,总体预后较好。