全身麻醉诱导后经多功能插管型喉罩盲探气管插管的临床观察

目的 观察全身麻醉患者经多功能插管型喉罩盲探行气管插管的可行性及安全性. 方法 选择ASA分级Ⅰ、Ⅱ级,年龄18～77岁择期行全身麻醉下手术的患者100例.麻醉诱导使用芬太尼4μg/kg、丙泊酚1.5～2.0 mg/kg、罗库溴铵0.6 mg/kg,诱导后先置入多功能插管型喉罩,通气行纤维支气管镜检查并定位后,经喉罩盲探插入配套的鹰嘴气管导管,观察放置喉罩及气管插管的次数和时间,记录诱导前、放置喉罩前后、气管插管前后的BP和HR.结果 置入喉罩和气管插管均1～2次成功,置入喉罩时间平均(11.0±3.2)s,气管插管时间平均(10.5±6.2)s,插管成功退出喉罩后即刻SBP、DBP和HR与诱导前比较,差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05). 结论 经多功能插管型喉罩盲探气管插管,安全、快捷、有效,患者舒适、刺激小,比经典的插管型喉罩盲探插管更具有优势.     

插管型喉罩LMA-Fastrach与I-gel引导盲探气管插管的比较

目的比较插管型喉罩LMA-Fastrach和I-gel喉罩引导盲探气管插管的临床效果。方法择期全麻手术患者60例,随机分为两组,分别采用LMA-Fastrach(L组)和I-gel(I组)行盲探气管插管。记录喉罩和气管导管插入时间、盲探插管总时间,及喉罩和气管导管尝试插入次数。结果I组喉罩插入时间[(20±3)s vs.(27±5)s]、盲探插管总时间[(85±4)s vs.(95±6)s]明显短于L组(P0.05)。两组气管导管插入时间以及喉罩、气管导管插入次数差异无统计学意义。结论LMA-Fastrach和I-gel喉罩均可用于引导盲探气管插管。     

Lightwand光棒插管在整形外科手术中的应用

目的：观察1ightwand光棒用于整形外科手术患者常规气管插管的安全性,和有效性以及在预测困难气管插管的可行性。方法：选择152例ASA Ⅰ或IⅡ级全麻下行择期整形外科手术的患者,其中124例为正常气道,根据光棒前端弯曲角度不同随机分为A组（60°）和B组（90°）,28例预测有困难气管插管为C组（90°）。记录各组插管时间、插管次数、插管的成功率、插管期间血流动力学变化以及术后并发症情况。结果：A、B和C组的一次插管成功率分别为100％、95．2％和85．7％,三组的插管总成功率均为100％;A、B和C组完成插管时间分别为（11．8±4．9）s、（14．0±5．4）S和（17．4±8．1）s,A组的光点寻找时间、光棒退出时间和气管插管时间均较B、C组缩短;光棒插管对循环功能的干扰小,术后并发症少。结论：lightwand光棒用于整形外科手术的常规气管插管及预测困难气管插管,插管成功率高、耗时短,对血流动力学影响较小,插管并发症少。     

预期困难气道患者喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管的研究

目的 探讨在预期困难气道患者中采用喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜(fiberoptic bronchoscope,FOB)引导气管插管的应用价值. 方法 择期经口气管插管全身麻醉手术预测困难气道患者24例,ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,入选患者达到以下1种或几种条件为预期困难气道:1.5 cm＜张口度＜3 cm,甲颏间距＜6 cm,头颈活动度＜80°,Mallampati分级Ⅲ、Ⅳ级.采用随机数字表法分为喉罩辅助FOB组(F组)和直接喉镜组(L组),每组12例.F组采用喉罩辅助FOB引导下气管插管;L组在直接喉镜暴露下经口气管插管,3次试插未成功者改行F组方法试插.记录两组患者的气道评估情况、气管插管前(基础值)和插管后3 min的MAP和HR、成功插管的次数及术后的并发症的发生情况. 结果 插管前两组气道评估差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).与插管前相比,L组患者插管后MAP和HR显著增加,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).两组插管后的MAP和HR比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).F组气管插管一次成功率为75％,3次以内插管合计总成功率为100％;L组气管插管一次成功率为25％,3次以内插管合计总成功率为50％;6例L组患者直接喉镜3次插管不成功后改为喉罩辅助FOB插管,2例1次成功,4例2次成功;F组一次插管成功率和3次插管总成功率均显著高于L组,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).与L组插管时间(161±26)s比较,F组插管时间(81±9)s明显缩短,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).F组有2例术后轻度咽喉疼痛,L组有6例术后咽喉疼痛明显和轻度声嘶、2例轻度咽痛. 结论 对术前预期为困难气道的患者采用喉罩辅助FOB引导气管插管可显著提高插管的成功率,降低直接喉镜反复试插引起的术后并发症,具有一定的临床应用价值.     

颈椎手术患者喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管的效果

目的 评价颈椎手术患者喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管的效果.方法 择期行前路颈椎手术患者40例,性别不限,年龄18～55岁,体重50～75 kg,ASA分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,Mallampatis分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级.采用随机数字表法,将患者随机分为2组(n=20):纤维支气管镜引导气管插管组(FOB组)和喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管组(LMA组).麻醉诱导后,进行气管插管.记录气管插管时间和气管导管置入情况;记录气管插管期间高血压、心动过速和低氧血症的发生情况;记录LMA组喉罩置入情况、置入时间和拔除气管导管时喉罩移位情况.记录拔除喉罩带血和术后咽喉部不良反应的发生情况.结果 喉罩1次置入成功率为90％,置入时间为(13±3)s.两组气管插管成功率均为100％.与FOB组比较,LMA组气管插管时间缩短,1次气管插管成功率升高(P＜0.05).两组气管插管期间血液动力学稳定,均未发生高血压、心动过速和低氧血症.LMA组气管导管拔除时有8例(40％)发生喉罩移位;拔除喉罩时1例发生喉罩带血;术后1例发生咽部轻微疼痛;两组均未见其它不良反应的发生.结论 颈椎手术患者喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管不仅可确保有效通气,还可提高引导气管插管成功率,明显缩短气管插管时间.     

喉镜辅助光棒在困难气管插管中的临床应用

目的 探讨喉镜辅助下光棒在困难气管插管中的临床应用效果.方法 全麻插管手术患者120例,Yamamoto气道评级Ⅲ～Ⅳ级,随机均分为三组:喉镜组(A组)、单纯光棒组(B组)及喉镜辅助光棒组(C组).记录患者插管前后MAP、HR、去甲肾上腺素(NE)和肾上腺素(E)的变化,及插管成功率、插管时间、插管后并发症的发生情况.结果 与诱导后比较,插管即刻和插管后1min三组患者MAP、NE和E均显著升高,HR明显增快(P＜0.05),且A组高于B、C两组(P＜0.05),B、C两组相比差异无统计学意义.插管成功率A组为82.5％,B组为77.5％,C组为100％,C组显著高于A、B组(P＜0.01).插管时间A组为(43.3±12.5)s,B组为(47.1±15.1)s,C组为(31.1±10.7)s,C组显著短于A、B组(P＜0.05).结论 喉镜辅助下光棒在困难气管插管中成功率高、时间短,对血流动力学影响较轻,术后并发症少.     

颈椎手术患者i-gel喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管的效果

目的 评价颈椎手术患者i-gel喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管的效果.方法 择期全麻气管插管的颈椎手术患者40例,ASA分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,性别不限,年龄36～62岁,体重57～78 kg,身高165～177 cm,Mallampati分级Ⅰ～Ⅲ级,随机分为2组(n=20):口咽通气道辅助FOB引导气管插管组(O组)和i-gel喉罩辅助FOB引导气管插管组(I组).麻醉诱导后,进行气管插管.记录气管插管时间、纤维支气管镜咽部解剖结构显露分级、气管插管置人情况;记录气管插管期间高血压、心动过速和低氧血症的发生情况;记录拔除喉罩带血和术后咽喉部不良反应的发生情况.结果 i-gel喉罩均1次置入成功,置入时间为(10±3)s,两组气管插管成功率均为100%;与O组比较,I组气管插管时间缩短,1次气管插管成功率升高,纤维支气管镜咽部解剖结构显露分级升高(P＜0.05).两组气管插管期间血液动力学稳定,均未发生高血压和心动过速和低氧血症,I组仅1例喉罩粘血,两组均未见其他不良反应发生.结论 颈椎手术患者i-gel喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管不仅可确保有效的通气,而且可提高引导气管插管成功机率,缩短操作时间.     

经Airtraq喉镜使用钢丝加强型导管和普通气管导管的比较

目的 观察Airtraq喉镜使用钢丝加强型导管和普通气管导管进行气管插管的临床效果.方法 90例行择期整形外科手术的需气管插管的全麻患者,随机分为钢丝加强型导管组(A组)和普通导管组(B组),每组45例.常规静脉快速诱导后,用Airtraq喉镜分别携带钢丝加强型导管或普通气管导管行气管插管.观察两组患者的插管时间、插管成功率、插管期间的血流动力学变化以及术后并发症的发生情况.结果 所有患者全部用Airtraq喉镜完成气管插管,B组一次插管成功率(91.1%)低于A组(95.6%)(P＜0.05);B组插管时间[(35.4±16.6)s]显著长于A组[(26.8士9.0)s](P＜0.05),两组血流动力学变化及术后并发症的发生情况差异无统计学意义.结论 Airtraq喉镜能够安全有效地应用于全麻患者的气管插管,使用钢丝加强型导管可以进一步提高插管成功率,缩短插管时间.     

LMA Supreme和i-gel喉罩用于全麻乳腺手术气道管理的比较

目的比较LMA Supreme喉罩和i-gel喉罩用于全麻乳腺手术患者术中气道管理的效果。方法选取全麻下行乳腺癌改良根治术患者60例,随机分为LMA Supreme喉罩组(A组)和i-gel喉罩组(B组)。记录两种喉罩的口咽腔漏气压、置入速度、置入时间和首次置入成功率,并记录并发症的发生情况。结果 A和B组首次置入成功率分别为28例(93.3%)和27例(90.0%),喉罩成功置入时间分别为(30±14)和(32±13)s,口咽腔漏气压分别为(25±5)和(27±7)cm H2O;两组首次置入成功率、成功置入时间、口咽腔漏气压和咽痛的发生率差异无统计学意义。两组均未出现气道痉挛或误吸等并发症。结论 LMA Supreme喉罩和i-gel喉罩均可安全有效地用于全麻乳腺癌改良根治术中,两者气道管理效果相似。     

Cookgas气管插管型喉罩在其他插管方法失败患者中的应用

Cookgas气管插管型喉罩(Cookgas intubating laryngeal airway,CILA,Mercury医疗公司,美国)是一种新型插管型喉罩,具备了经典喉罩管壁柔软和Fastrach插管型喉罩引导插管简单、喉罩退出容易双重特点,是处理困难气道的良好选择.经CILA可以盲探完成气管插管,也可以辅助多种纤维软镜和硬镜完成插管,成功率较高[1,2].     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.