Housing Circumstances are Associated with Household Food Access among Low-Income Urban Families

Household food insecurity is a pervasive problem in North America with serious health consequences. While affordable housing has been cited as a potential policy approach to improve food insecurity, the relationship between conventional notions of housing affordability and household food security is not well understood. Furthermore, the influence of housing subsidies, a key policy intervention aimed at improving housing affordability in Western countries, on food insecurity is unclear. We undertook a cross-sectional survey of 473 families in market rental (n = 222) and subsidized (n = 251) housing in high-poverty urban neighborhoods to examine the influence of housing circumstances on household food security. Food insecurity, evident among two thirds of families, was inversely associated with income and after-shelter income. Food insecurity prevalence did not differ between families in market and subsidized housing, but families in subsidized housing had lower odds of food insecurity than those on a waiting list for such housing. Market families with housing costs that consumed more than 30% of their income had increased odds of food insecurity. Rent arrears were also positively associated with food insecurity. Compromises in housing quality were evident, perhaps reflecting the impact of financial constraints on multiple basic needs as well as conscious efforts to contain housing costs to free up resources for food and other needs. Our findings raise questions about current housing affordability norms and highlight the need for a review of housing interventions to ensure that they enable families to maintain adequate housing and obtain their other basic needs.     

Family food purchases and home food consumption: comparison of nutrient contents

Estimates of nutrient intakes based on food purchasing records modelled on the National Food Survey (NFS) were compared with nutrient intakes calculated from food consumption records based on a semi-weighted method, a combination of weighing and household measurement techniques. Of eighty-two families in Cambridge who completed the study, thirty-two were volunteers and fifty were from a random sample in which the co-operation rate was 73%. The estimated energy and nutrient contents of the Cambridge food purchases were very similar to those reported by the NFS for families of similar composition and income. The energy intakes obtained by the semi-weighed method were compared with results from twenty-five studies of energy intake based on quantitative measurements of food consumption: there was no evidence to suggest that the semi-weighed method consistently under- or overestimated intakes in the Cambridge subjects. Purchases adjusted to allow for waste and consumption of food by visitors contained significantly more energy, protein, carbohydrate, calcium, iron and dietary fibre than measured home food consumption. There was no significant difference in the nutrient content of purchases and consumption per 4.184 MJ (1000 kcal), with the exception of Fe and ascorbic acid. Measured wastage of edible food in thirty-one families averaged 3.2% of purchases. Estimate of wastage in all eighty-two families was 3.8%, and consumption of food by visitors accounted for 3.0% of purchases. The excess of purchases over measured home food energy intake is probably accounted for by a net increase in larder stocks rather than wastage, consumption of food by visitors, or under-recording of intakes.     

Income differences in food consumption in the 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationships between an index of per capita income and the intake of a variety of individual foods as well as groups of food for men and women in different age groups. DESIGN: Cross-sectional national survey of free-living men and women. SUBJECTS: A sample of 5053 males and 5701 females aged 18 y and over who completed the Australian National Nutrition Survey 1995. METHODS: Information about the frequency of consumption of 88 food items was obtained. On the basis of scores on the Food Frequency Questionnaire, regular and irregular consumers of single foods were identified. The relationships between regularity of consumption of individual foods and per capita income were analysed via contingency tables. Food variety scores were derived by assigning individual foods to conventional food group taxonomies, and then summing up the dichotomised intake scores for individual foods within each food group. Two-way ANOVA (income x age group) were performed on the food variety scores for males and females, respectively. RESULTS: Per capita income was extensively related to the reported consumption of individual foods and to total and food group variety indices. Generally, both men and women in low income households had less varied diets than those in higher-income households. However, several traditional foods were consumed less often by young high-income respondents, especially young women. CONCLUSIONS: Major income differentials in food variety occur in Australia but they are moderated by age and gender. Younger high-income women, in particular, appear to have rejected a number of traditional foods, possibly on the basis of health beliefs. The findings also suggest that data aggregation has marked effects on income and food consumption relationships.     

Convenience food in the diet of children and adolescents: consumption and composition

Despite an increasing trend towards the use of convenience food, there is to date little debate on it in the nutritional sciences. In the present study, we present and evaluate data on consumption frequencies and composition of savoury convenience food in German families using data from the Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric Longitudinally Designed (DONALD) Study. The DONALD Study is an ongoing, longitudinal (open cohort) study (started 1985), collecting detailed data on diet, development, and metabolism in infants, children and adolescents. Dietary intake was measured by yearly repeated 3 d weighed dietary records (n 1558) in 554 subjects (278 boys; 276 girls), 3-18 years old, between 2003 and 2006. A total of 1345 (86%) 3 d dietary records mentioned consumption of at least one convenience food. Convenience food consumption (percentage of total food intake, g/d) increased with age from approximately 3% in the 3-8 year olds to 7% in 14-18-year-old boys and 5% in 14-18-year-old girls (P < 0.0001) but remained constant during the study period. Convenience foods contributed more to total fat (g/d) (P < 0.001) and less to total carbohydrate (P < 0.0001) than to total energy (kJ/d) intake. The 700 convenience-food products recorded by our sample had on average fourteen ingredients; 4% were flavourings and 16% were food additives. In conclusion, convenience foods were widely consumed by our sample of German children and adolescents and their consumption increased with age. The composition of convenience food was characterised by a high fat content and a high number of flavourings and food additives.     

Weekly food servings and participation in social programs among low income families.

Low income families were interviewed to determine factors related to the number of family food servings per week. A multiple regression model indicated that participation in WIC (supplemental food program for women, infants and children), household size, and number of different income sources were associated with more family food servings per week. Number of food servings per week decreased the last week of the month most often in families with younger members.     

The effect of rises in food costs on food intake of three year olds in Jerusalem

The food intake of two samples of children born five years apart were determined in 1975 and 1980 at three years of age in a low and middle class neighbourhood of Jerusalem. The 24-hour recall method was used. No deficiency in caloric intake was noted. The protein intake was twice the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), 3.7 gr/kg in the study group interviewed in 1975 and 3.3 gr/kg in those interviewed in 1980. The mean daily iron intake was only 40% of the RDA. The main sources for protein were milk and milk products, poultry and eggs. Significantly higher mean caloric and protein intakes were noted for the upper as compared to middle and low social class in 1980. Children from Asian origin had the lowest caloric and protein intake in 1975 and 1980 whereas those of European-American origin had the highest. Severe inflation and the resulting tenfold increase in food prices in Israel were not reflected in marked changes in dietary intake. The percentage expenditure on food was 25% of total income during both periods. The possible factors influencing the stability in dietary intake are governmental subsidy for the essential foods, correction of wages and increase in social security payments thus maintaining the buying power, as well as the educational effect of the preventive services--the Mother and Child Health Stations on feeding practices.     

Diminishing or increasing contrasts? Social class variation in Finnish food consumption patterns, 1979-1990.

The study examines whether social-class-based food consumption patterns changed in Finland during 1979-1990. The data were compiled by the National Public Health Institute in connection with a programme entitled 'Monitoring Health Behaviour among the Finnish Adult Population'. A questionnaire was sent annually to a random sample of Finns (N = 3400-5100, response rate 68-86%). This study was restricted to respondents 25-54 years old. Social class was defined by level of education (low, middle, high). Trends and variations in consumption patterns were studied by cross-tabulations and by fitting logistic regression models. The results show that the proportions of users of butter, high-fat milk and coffee sugar decreased during the study eriod whereas that of regular users of vegetables increased. Since the mid-1980s the shift towards 'healthier' food choices has accelerated among men, yet women are consistently more health-oriented. Social class appears to be a significant determinant of food consumption patterns. Men and women of lower social class follow trends set by upper social classes with a time lag of about ten years. Along with an overall shift towards observance of dietary recommendations, social class differences in Finnish food consumption patterns have diminished, without, however, disappearing altogether.     

Impact of price hike on bread consumption in Egypt.

The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of price hike on bread consumption pattern. A purposive sample of 300 families was selected to represent low, middle and high income families. Bread consumption pattern was investigated including purchase of balady and french bread, daily percapita share from each type, number of left over loaves, methods of handling excess bread and consumers suggestions to improve bread quality. The data was collected over two phases, in the first phase the price of a loaf of bread was 2 P.T. The follow up data was collected after the price of a loaf of bread was increased to 5 P.T. The result show that balady bread was more frequently purchased by low income families, while french bread was consumed at a relatively higher rate by high income families particularly during the second phase of the study. The increase in the price of bread did not have any effect on the quantity purchased or on the number of left over loaves. However, the results show that there was a limited reduction in the quantity of bread wasted. The majority of the sample families accepted the present price of bread. However when given the choice, they preferred to reduce the weight of a loaf rather than increasing the price.     

Changes in food consumption patterns in Bahrain

Changes in food consumption in Bahrain can be identified particularly in the second half of seventies with the wake of oil boom. The consumption of traditional foods such as fish and dates have declined, while that of processed foods, fat, eggs, meat, poultry and milk products have risen. The daily per capita intake of animal protein and fat have increased at the expense of carbohydrates. Some factors responsible for this change are increasing income and literacy, food price fluctuations, food subsidy policy, the influence of immigrant food habits, influence of mass media and the changing structure of households. The change in dietary intake has associated with change in health and nutritional problems in the country.     

The relationship between television food advertisements recalled and actual foods consumed by children

Introduction : A probable influence on children's food choices is television advertising, although there is very little information on the relationship between food advertisements shown and foods consumed by British children. Methods : Forty-four children aged 9–11 years, from private and state schools in Newcastle-upon-Tyne from a variety of social class areas were interviewed to determine which television advertisements for food they remembered. The study sample was small and not known to be representative. Brand-specific information on food intake was obtained using a 3-day food diary. Parents were interviewed regarding food requests received. Spearman's correlation was carried out between the number of foods for which advertisements could be remembered and the number of times these foods were consumed. Results : A relationship was found between the foods for which the children could remember the advertisement and the number of these foods which the child ate ( r =0.58). For individual food groups the relationship between foods remembered and foods consumed was strongest for soft drinks ( r =0.68) and crisps and savoury snacks ( r =0.61). Four out of 10 of the most frequently requested foods were amongst the 10 most frequently recalled television food advertisements. Conclusions : The results support the hypothesis that television advertisements influence food choice.     

The impact of changes in purchasing power on food consumption of an urban population in Guatemala City

Repeated measures were obtained in a sample of 200 poor urban households in Guatemala to evaluate the impact of changes in their purchasing power on food consumption patterns. The sample was divided into three income level groups, based on their families’ total per capita expenditures. Results revealed that the purchasing power of the poorest group was less affected between 1986 and 1987 than that of families with relatively higher income.

Energy and protein intakes improved in the low and medium income groups and did not change in the high income group. This maintenance or improvement of dietary intake was at the expense of reduced expenditures on other items such as recreation, clothing, and health. However, the mean energy intakes and the protein quality were, in general, inadequate relative to recommendations, both in 1986 and 1987.     

Home and outside home food complementarity in Bamako (Mali): nutritional and economic aspects. What is the rationality behind consumers' choices?]

BACKGROUND: Great modifications in social and family relationships and life style come from rapid urbanisation in developing countries. Various types of malnutrition coexist in these towns. Food consumption outside the home is more and more common. This in turn encourages rapid growth in the food informal economic sector which must be taken into account in food and nutrition policy and planning. The aim of this study was to analyse the characteristics and complementarities between home and outside the home food consumption of different kinds of individuals coming from different kinds of families in Bamako, in terms of expenditures and aspects of food and nutritional intakes. METHODS: 366 individuals from 74 families were interviewed. They were chosen according to defined criteria in three districts of Bamako of high, middle and poor socio-economic level. RESULTS: At home the daily food expenditure is 2.27 and 3.79 times greater per individual in rich than in middle income and poor families respectively. Animal proteins are respectively 41%, 19% and 9% of daily protein intake. Energy from lipids is 20 to 30% in rich and middle families. In poor ones it is only 15% which is the lower limit of nutritional recommendations. Moreover, contrary to proteins and carbohydrates, the cost of lipids seems, almost incompressible. Almost everybody eats out of home food, particularly children. Its cost, on an energy basis, is higher than home food. The expense is 19 to 27% of the family food budget. It appears necessary to the satisfaction of nutritional requirements in middle income and poor families. Despite various costs, whatever be the socio-economic level, energy intakes coming from that food are equivalent in absolute terms among various kinds of individuals: children, men and women. CONCLUSION: Families had to adapt their food strategies after the 1994 Franc CFA devaluation. Various hypotheses are presented, linked to intra-family relationships and, within poor families, to insertion in the street food economic sector, in order to understand, the logic of food choices. Such an analysis, where health, nutritional, economic, social and cultural aspects of food are taken into account, allows some concrete orientations for urban food and nutrition policy.     

Contributions by food demand studies to the development of public policies in nutrition

Food choice in diet composition is a determinant of individual health status. Currently, there are gradually fewer conditions involving food scarcity and more involving excess food. Changes in income and relative prices generate measurable effects on the population's food intake patterns. Economic models have significant explanatory power for food demand, and the interactions between consumption, income, and prices are usually expressed as elasticity. However, the construction of some studies shows important shortcomings, especially for public policy application. This conceptual article discusses the potential contribution of food demand studies, suggesting improvements in the structural design of such studies with the inclusion of current nutritional concepts for redirecting the nutritional transition from under-nutrition to healthy eating, avoiding the present trend towards epidemic obesity.     

Dietary sodium intake of infants fed commercially prepared baby food and table food

Sodium intake of infants varies widely with the type of food consumed. However, few reports are available describing the nutrients, including sodium values, of dietary intakes of infants receiving supplemental foods. The purpose of this study was to determine the sodium, energy, and nutrient values of diets for infants from low-income families participating in the WIC program. The sample consisted of 306 infants, aged 4 through 7 months, who were seen in well-child clinics. Approximately 200 of the infants were reportedly fed commercially prepared baby food as the only solid food; 55 received 50% or more of their energy from table foods. The dietary intakes of infants receiving supplemental foods and consuming commercially prepared baby foods included significantly less sodium than the intakes of infants fed primarily table foods. As a group, all infants met the RDAs for most nutrients but had higher sodium values than reported by other researchers. The group of infants for whom consumption of table foods was reported had values above the acceptable range for sodium primarily because the caregivers failed to provide low-sodium, nutrient-dense, supplemental foods in the quantities prescribed but instead substituted sodium-dense meat and vegetable products.     

How families of children with severe disabilities choose to allocate a cash subsidy

This study examines how families raising children with severe developmental disabilities use a cash subsidy. Eighty-one families were interviewed prior to receiving the $225 monthly subsidy and again 1 year later. Families reported no change in the number of services they used, nor did they significantly increase the amount spent on services. Although families did not spend significantly more on purchases in the month prior to each interview, there was a significant increase in the amount spent on major purchases made in the year after receipt of the subsidy. The pattern and amount of expenditures are described. Lower income families reported the subsidy as significantly more helpful than higher income families. The implications of the findings for social policy are discussed and recommendations are made. This article is based on research supported by grants from the Michigan Developmental Disabilities Council, the University of Michigan Rackham Faculty Grant Program, and Wayne State University. The views expressed herein are sllely those of the authors and do not represent the opinions or policies of any agency of the State of Michigan. This research was conducted while Maureen Marcenko was an assistant professor in the School of Social Work and the acting director of the Developmental Disabilities Institute at Wayne State University; Judith C. Meyers was an associate director of the Bush Program in Child Development and Social Policy at the University of Michigan.     

Studies on food and nutrient intake by urban population of Bangladesh: Comparison between intakes of 1962–64 and 1985–86

In 1985–86 a food consumption survey covering about 4000 people was carried out in 11 locations of Dhaka city. Comparison of the results with those of the 1962–64 study revealed a deteriorating food and nutrition situation of the urban population. Among food groups, consumption of pulses and food from animal sources in particular have greatly declined. Among nutrients the foremost deficiency was of energy in which 68% of families consumed less than the requirement. A similar percentage of families consumed inadequate protein, but in 23% of them there would not have been a protein problem had there been an adequate supply of other sources of food energy. Among the micronutrients the severest deficiencies were of riboflavin and vitamin A. Forty two percent of families consumed less than the recommended level of ascorbic acid. A comparison of intake patterns in urban and rural areas shows several differences, even though the pattern of intake of dietary consituents was similar.     

广东居民抗氧化维生素摄入量与个体特征因素的关系

为找出膳食抗氧化维生素摄入量与年龄、性别、文化程度、家庭总收入、工作状况等个体特征之间的关系 ,1995年在广东省调查了 92 1人 ,其中男性 418人 ,女性 5 0 3人 ,年龄 2 5～ 84岁 ,收集了社会经济状况资料 ,及用食物频数法收集了调查对象最近 1年食物摄入状况资料。结果显示 ,多种抗氧化维生素和热量的摄入量男性高于女性 ;年龄较大者各种抗氧化维生素的摄入量较低 ;较高文化程度者及家庭每年总收入高者摄入维生素 E较多 ;个体户和农民各种抗氧化维生素的摄入量普遍较其他职业者低 ,男性待业者及女性退休者维生素 E的摄入量明显高于其余各组 ;除肥胖组以外 ,体重指数高者膳食各种抗氧化维生素摄入量较多。本研究表明 ,由于社会经济环境不同 ,抗氧化维生素的摄入量各有差异 ,老年人、文化程度低者及农村地区需要加强健康饮食的指导 ,如增加豆类、水果和蔬菜的摄入量。     

Design and analysis of food frequency questionnaires--review and novel method

A novel method is proposed for the design and analysis of a food frequency questionnaire facilitated by a computer program. The method relies on a weighed inventory undertaken by a sample of the population that is combined into a database along with the nutrient analyses of the foods consumed. The program provides an interface that enables the researcher to see the total amount of each food that was consumed, decide on what questions to ask and allocate the relevant foods to these questions. The approach means that all foods consumed can appear in the questionnaire. The nutrient analysis for each question is a weighted mean depending on the inventory. The portion weight employed for each question is derived from the weights of foods consumed in the inventory and any misperceptions in the frequency of consumption of all the subjects are corrected by calculating a factor to multiply by the frequency from the questionnaire. A viability study established the practicability of the method.     

Do nutrition programs make a difference? The case of Brazil

Four Brazilian food and nutrition programs operating during some part of 1974-86 are evaluated for their effectiveness in curing or preventing infant and child malnutrition, including low birth weight when pregnant women were beneficiaries. Two programs distributed free food to identified clients: traditional commercial foods in one case and specially formulated supplements in the other. The other two programs subsidized four or more basic foodstuffs: one experiment quantitatively restricted a subsidy to identified families, and the other was unrestricted and open to all families patronizing certain shops. The programs were more effective at curing than at preventing malnutrition, and more effective at increasing weight than height. Many beneficiaries, even when initially underweight, showed no change, and some deteriorated despite the food transfer. Results were better after than during the first year of life, when deterioration is most likely. Donation programs including medical and educational components proved more effective than pure subsidies, showing that while poverty may be the chief cause of malnutrition, the problem should be seen as poor health rather than simply low food consumption. Evaluation also shows that programs were inefficient in transferring benefits, and that clients were deterred from participating by the costs of obtaining the food and its poor quality and small volume. Longer participation improved results, but more frequent participation in a given interval did not necessarily do so.     

The effects of nutritional supplementation on the diets of low-income families at risk of malnutrition

Protein-energy malnutrition in synergism with infection is a major problem for most developing countries, and inadequate food consumption is a critical factor in its development. Food supplementation programs can improve nutrient consumption but may also have unintended consequences. Changes in consumption of foods as well as nutrients need to be identified and evaluated. The effects of a food supplementation program on family diet patterns and protein-energy intake were investigated using data from nutritionally at risk families in Bogota, Colombia. Because food supplements are income transfers they need to substitute for purchases of similar food items. However, the results of our investigation reveal that food supplementation based on familiar foods that are part of the usual family diet are consumed in substantial quantities and result in net nutrient consumption increases. The food supplementation program increases consumption of preferred food items and introduces greater diversity into the family diet. These effects are enhanced when combined with a home education program.