Telomerase positive human diploid fibroblasts are resistant to replicative senescence but not premature senescence induced by chemical reagents

Human diploid fibroblasts in tissue culture undergo replicative senescence after a finite number of divisions that is characterized by a permanent loss of their dividing potential. However, senescence-like phenotypes, including growth cessation, morphological changes, and appearance of senescence-associated β-galactosidae (SA-gal) activity, can be induced by treating early passage cells with C₆-ceramide, H₂O₂, LY294002, or trichostatin A. While there is convincing evidence that telomere shortening is causally related to replicative senescence, the role of telomere shortening in the chemical-induced premature senescence is unclear. Here we employed a normal human BJ cell strain and its telomerase-transfected counterpart, termed BJ-T cells, to examine whether active telomerase in BJ-T can block or delay the premature senescence induced by various chemicals and, if not, whether telomere shortening still occurs. We found that, although all four chemicals tested could induce growth arrest, and in some cases SA-gal activity, in both BJ and BJ-T cells, only H₂O₂ clearly caused an irreversible loss of dividing potential. H₂O₂ treatment did not inhibit the cellular telomerase activity, nor did it cause any appreciable telomere shortening in BJ-T cells. These results suggest that oxidative stress and other chemical reagents can target at sites unrelated to the telomere-associated clocking mechanism. Alternatively these chemicals may bypass the telomere length maintenance machinery and target at its downstream sites. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

氨基胍延缓人胚肺二倍体成纤维细胞复制性衰老的实验研究

目的探讨人工合成单体抗氧化剂氨基胍（2-AG）对人胚肺二倍体成纤维细胞（2BS）复制性衰老的影响及其分子机制。方法观察2-AG对2BS细胞衰老表型、细胞代龄、传代速度、细胞周期、细胞增殖能力、晚期糖基化终末产物（AGEs）水平及衰老相关β半乳糖苷酶（SA-β-Gal）阳性率的影响。结果2-AG可维持细胞的非衰老表型，增加2BS细胞代龄19～20代，MTT法分析发现用2-AG孵育细胞84h，细胞增殖能力较对照组升高36％～40％。2-AG显著加快了细胞的增殖速度，其培养细胞S期的比例较对照细胞升高约1倍。另外，2-AG连续培养的细胞在老龄阶段AGEs、SA-β-Gal阳性率均显著低于老年对照细胞，而与年轻2BS细胞相似。结论2-AG可有效延缓2BS细胞的复制性衰老。     

Energetic stress induces premature aging of diploid human fibroblasts (Wi-38) in vitro

Oxidative phosphorylation is the main endogenous source for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In order to investigate the influence of enhanced ROS production on the in vitro senescence of Wi-38 fibroblasts, cells were cultivated in medium with elevated (hypertonic) NaCl concentrations. The number of active Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase molecules per cell was found to be increased. A rise in both respiration and glycolysis as evidenced by the increases in oxygen and glucose consumption and lactate production was revealed. Cells stayed alive in medium with NaCl concentrations of up to 0.30 M and could be adapted to growth under these hypertonic conditions (high-NaCl tolerant cells). These cells exhibited an increased cell size and protein content. A growing number of cells showed stress fibers and granulation. The proliferation rate and the maximum number of cumulative population doublings of these high-NaCl tolerant cultures were reduced and saturation density was decreased. Thus, these cells under energetic stress due to increased energy requirements for active ion transport expressed features typical for aging in vitro. We conclude therefore that energetic stress induces premature aging in human diploid fibroblasts.     

Copper ability to induce premature senescence in human fibroblasts

Human diploid fibroblasts (HDFs) exposed to subcytotoxic concentrations of oxidative or stressful agents, such as hydrogen peroxide, tert-butylhydroperoxide, or ethanol, undergo stress-induced premature senescence (SIPS). This condition is characterized by the appearance of replicative senescence biomarkers such as irreversible growth arrest, increase in senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA β-gal) activity, altered cell morphology, and overexpression of several senescence-associated genes. Copper is an essential trace element known to accumulate with ageing and to be involved in the pathogenesis of some age-related disorders. Past studies using either yeast or human cellular models of ageing provided evidence in favor of the role of intracellular copper as a longevity modulator. In the present study, copper ability to cause the appearance of senescent features in HDFs was assessed. WI-38 fibroblasts exposed to a subcytotoxic concentration of copper sulfate presented inhibition of cell proliferation, cell enlargement, increased SA β-gal activity, and mRNA overexpression of several senescence-associated genes such as p21, apolipoprotein J (ApoJ), fibronectin, transforming growth factor β-1 (TGF β1), insulin growth factor binding protein 3, and heme oxygenase 1. Western blotting results confirmed enhanced intracellular p21, ApoJ, and TGF β1 in copper-treated cells. Thus, similar to other SIPS-inducing agents, HDF exposure to subcytotoxic concentration of copper results in premature senescence. Further studies will unravel molecular mechanisms and the biological meaning of copper-associated senescence and lead to a better understanding of copper-related disorder establishment and progression.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11357-011-9276-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

人胚肺成纤维细胞复制性衰老的基因表达变化

目的检测人胚肺成纤维细胞(2BS细胞)复制性衰老过程中的基因表达变化,并试图寻找细胞衰老的标志性基因。方法利用cDNA芯片对比检测28代龄和64代龄的2BS细胞基因表达谱,通过RT-PCR对挑选的9个差异基因在7个不同代龄2BS细胞中的表达进行验证分析。结果和年轻细胞相比,衰老2BS细胞有117种基因的变化幅度在2倍以上,46种基因在2.5倍以上;细胞衰老过程中下调的基因主要是细胞周期相关基因,上调基因主要参与细胞应激反应和蛋白分泌等过程;9个差异基因的RT-PCR验证结果与芯片结果基本一致。结论基因芯片是研究细胞衰老基因表达和调控网络的重要工具,可用于衰老特征性基因的筛选。     

人衰老二倍体成纤维细胞对烷化剂损伤的应答

目的　观察衰老的人胚肺二倍体成纤维细胞 (2BS)对烷化剂甲磺酸甲酯 (MMS)诱导的DNA损伤的应答。　方法　以体外培养的不同代龄的人胚肺 2BS为对象 ,以MMS诱导DNA损伤 ,以年轻细胞 (<30代 )为对照 ,观察衰老细胞 (>5 5代 )经MMS处理后的细胞形态、增殖特性、细胞周期的改变 ,并分别检测 gadd4 5、p2 1和p5 3等基因转录水平的表达变化 ,同时以非程序性DNA合成(UDS)和单细胞凝胶电泳试验测定DNA修复能力。　结果　经MMS诱导DNA损伤后 ,衰老细胞的细胞形态、生长曲线和细胞周期的变化均不及年轻细胞明显 ;gadd4 5、p2 1和 p5 3等基因的可诱导性表达均低于年轻细胞 ;同时 ,衰老细胞总的及单个细胞的修复能力较年轻细胞明显下降。　结论　衰老 2BS细胞对MMS诱导的DNA损伤后的细胞应答变化能力下降 ,且其修复能力的减退可能与基因的可诱导性表达下降有关。     

Cardiolipin activates MAP kinases during premature senescence in normal human fibroblasts

Lipids are major structural components of cellular membranes and regulate various signaling pathways as a mediator of the signals or a source of new signals. Our earlier studies show that cardiolipin very sensitively induces premature senescence in normal human fibroblasts. To understand a molecular basis for the action of cardiolipin, we tested whether the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascades have a role in the above phenomenon. As expected, cardiolipin activated phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), and p38 map kinase (p38) of the MAP kinase family as in replicatively senesced cells. These results suggest that cardiolipin uses signaling pathways similar to those in replicative senescence to lead to premature senescence.     

Cell cycle regulation in H(2)O(2)-induced premature senescence of human diploid fibroblasts and regulatory control exerted by the papilloma virus E6 and E7 proteins

Many biomarkers of replicative senescence appear in stress-induced premature senescence (SIPS) of human diploid fibroblasts (HDFs). The mRNA level of key cell cycle regulators was studied in H(2)O(2)-induced premature senescence of HDFs expressing or not the papillomavirus E6 and E7 proteins, which enhanced, respectively, the proteolysis of p53 and Rb. The CdKI's p21(waf-1) and p16(Ink-4a) were found overexpressed in H(2)O(2)-induced premature senescence, while p19(Ink-4d)and p27(Kip-1) were repressed. The results obtained in E6 HDFs suggest that p21(waf-1) and p16(Ink-4a) overexpressions are p53-independent, while p27(Kip-1) and p19(Ink-4d) down-regulations are p53-dependent.E6 regulated Rb, p130, p53 and p16(Ink-4a) mRNA level in non-stressing conditions, and regulated p130, p107, p53, p19(Ink-4d), p27(Kip-1) mRNA level in SIPS. SIPS modified the E6-mediated regulatory control on p107, p16(Ink-4a), p19(Ink-4d) and p27(Kip-1) mRNA level, when compared to normal conditions.E7 regulated the mRNA level of all the genes studied, in all conditions, suggesting that the Rb family or other E7-interacting proteins might modify the expression of these genes. SIPS modified strongly the E7-mediated regulatory control on p107, p16(Ink-4a), p19(Ink-4d), p27(Kip-1), p21(Waf-1) and Rb mRNA level, when compared to normal conditions. Further work is ongoing to test whether this E7-mediated regulatory control takes place through interactions with Rb or other E7-interacting proteins.     

Cellular senescence in normal and premature lung aging

The incidence of chronic respiratory diseases (e.g., chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, COPD) and interstitial lung diseases (e.g., pneumonia and lung fibrosis) increases with age. In addition to immune senescence, the accumulation of senescent cells directly in lung tissue might play a critical role in the increased prevalence of these pulmonary diseases. In the last couple of years, detailed studies have identified the presence of senescent cells in the aging lung and in diseased lungs of patients with COPD and lung fibrosis. Cellular senescence has been shown for epithelial cells of bronchi and alveoli as well as mesenchymal and vascular cells. Known risk factors for pulmonary diseases (cigarette smoke, air pollutions, bacterial infections, etc.) were identified in experimental studies as being possible mediators in the development of cellular senescence. The present findings indicate the importance of cellular senescence in normal lung aging and in premature aging of the lung in patients with COPD, lung fibrosis, and probably other respiratory diseases.     

The gene expression profile of psoralen plus UVA-induced premature senescence in skin fibroblasts resembles a combined DNA-damage and stress-induced cellular senescence response phenotype

After a finite number of population doublings, normal human cells undergo replicative senescence accompanied by growth arrest. We previously described a model of stress-induced premature senescence by treatment of dermal fibroblasts with psoralen plus UVA, a common photodermatological therapy. Psoralen photoactivation has long been used as a therapy for hyperproliferative skin disorders. The repetitive therapeutical treatment is accompanied by premature aging of the skin. Treatment of fibroblasts in vitro with 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) and subsequent ultraviolet A (UVA) irradiation results in growth arrest with morphological and functional changes reminiscent of replicative senescence. For gene expression profiling in two strains of human skin fibroblasts after PUVA treatment, we used a low-density DNA array representing 240 genes involved in senescence and stress response. Twenty-nine genes were differentially expressed after PUVA treatment in the two strains of human skin fibroblasts. These genes are involved in growth arrest, stress response, modification of the extracellular matrix and senescence. This study contributes further to the elucidation of the PUVA model and its validation as a useful stress-induced premature senescence model aiming to characterize the premature senescence of fibroblasts and to identify biomarkers that could be applied in vivo.     

Cyclophosphamide induces premature senescence in normal human fibroblasts by activating MAP kinases

Cellular senescence is induced by diverse mechanisms and is in turn mediated by multiple biochemical pathways. We found that cyclophosphamide sensitively inhibits the growth of normal human fibroblasts. Those growth arrested fibroblasts showed morphology similar to that of normally senesced cells and strongly expressed senescence-associated β-galactosidase. They also showed up regulation of senescence-associated genes and eventually lost their division potential. In addition, enhanced phosphorylation of MAP kinases was found in growth arrested cells, very similar to normally senesced cells. Collectively, these results suggest that cyclophosphamide uses signaling pathways similar to those that are active in replicative senescence, thereby leading to premature senescence.     

Ginsenoside Rg1 delays tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced premature senescence in human WI-38 diploid fibroblast cells

Tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP), an analog of hydroperoxide, induced characteristic changes of senescence in human diploid fibroblasts WI-38 cells. It was reported that ginsenoside Rg1, an active ingredient of ginseng, ameliorated learning deficits in aged rats. The present study was aimed to investigate whether ginsenoside Rg1 can delay the premature senescence of WI-38 cells induced by t-BHP and to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. First, Rg1 pretreatment markedly reversed senescent morphological changes in WI-38 cells induced by t-BHP. Second, t-BHP treatment alone resulted in an increase in the protein levels of P16 and P21, and a decline in intracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) level and mitochondrial complex IV activity. Ginsenoside Rg1 pretreatment had significant effects of attenuating these changes. These data indicate that ginsenoside Rg1 has an anti-aging effect on t-BHP-induced premature senescence in WI-38 cells. This effect may be mediated by regulating cell cycle proteins and enhancing mitochondrial functioning.     

Resveratrol,but not dihydroresveratrol,induces premature senescence in primary human fibroblasts

Resveratrol, trans-3,5,4′-trihydroxystilbene, is a polyphenolic compound which has been reported to mimic the gene expression patterns seen in whole animals undergoing dietary restriction. The mechanism of action of resveratrol remains poorly understood, but modulation of both cellular proliferation and apoptosis has been proposed as important routes by which the molecule may exert its effects. This study reports the effects of both resveratrol and dihydroresveratrol (a primary in vivo metabolite) on the proliferative capacity of human primary fibroblasts. No generalised reduction in the growth fraction was observed when fibroblasts derived from three different tissues were treated with resveratrol at concentrations of 10 μm or less. However, concentrations above 25 μm produced a dose-dependent reduction in proliferation. This loss of the growth fraction was paralleled by an increase in the senescent fraction as determined by staining for senescence associated beta galactosidase and dose recovery studies conducted over a 7-day period. Entry into senescence in response to treatment with resveratrol could be blocked by a 30-min preincubation with the p38 MAP kinase inhibitor SB203580. No effects on proliferation were observed when cells were treated with dihydroresveratrol at concentrations of up to 100 μm.     

Polyamine metabolism and cell-cycle-dependent gene expression in IMR-90 human diploid fibroblasts during senescence in culture

Aging of IMR-90 human diploid fibroblasts in culture is accompanied by specific changes of polyamine metabolism including: (a) a fivefold decrease of serum-induced activity of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC¹ EC 4.1.1.17); (b) a six to tenfold increase of polyamine catabolism; and (c) a reduction of putrescine uptake. These changes apparently led to a significant reduction of putrescine accumulation in senescent cells following serum stimulation. Since the induction of ODC is a mid-G₁ event, the change of polyamine metabolism may be related to changes of expression of other cell-cycle-dependent genes during cellular aging. In addition to ODC gene, we have examined the expression of two early G₁ genes, c-erbB and c-myc, and one late G₁/S gene thymidine kinase, at mRNA levels, in both young and old IMR-90 cells. We have also compared the enzyme activities of two late G₁/S genes, thymidine kinase and thymidylate synthetase, in young and old cells following serum stimulation. We did not observe significant changes of c-erbB, c-myc, and ODC mRNA levels during cellular senescence. However, we found that serum-induced mRNA level of thymidine kinase gene in old IMR-90 cells was significantly reduced compared to that in the young cells. Results also demonstrate that aging of IMR-90 cells was accompanied by significant decrease of both thymidine kinase and thymidylate synthetase activities. In view of the recognized importance of polyamines in growth regulation, it is possible that alteration of polyamine metabolism may contribute to the impairment of expression of some key G₁/S genes and such impairment may contribute to the ultimate loss of dividing potential in senescent cells.     

Effects of human Na(+)/dicarboxylate cotransporter 3 on the replicative senescence of human embryonic lung diploid fibroblasts

To investigate the role of human Na(+)/dicarboxylate cotransporter 3 (hNaDC3) in the replicative senescence of normal human embryonic lung diploid fibroblasts (WI-38), a retroviral vector containing hNaDC3 was constructed. hNaDC3 was introduced into normal WI-38 cells through infection with the retroviral virus. Monoclones were selected with G418. The integration and expression of exotic genes were confirmed by Northern blot and Western blot. When compared with the control cells, WI-38 cells transfected with hNaDC3 cDNA showed significant suppression of growth rate (by 40%), increase of positive rate of SA-beta-gal staining, decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential, shortening of telomere length, and increase of P16 and P21 expression. The morphology characteristics of senescent fibroblasts appeared earlier. Our results have, for the first time, demonstrated that high expression of hNaDC3 may be able to, at least partly, promote the cellular senescence of human diploid fibroblasts.     

Sustained inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation impairs cell proliferation and induces premature senescence in human fibroblasts

The mitochondrial theory of aging predicts that functional alterations in mitochondria contribute to the aging process. Whereas this hypothesis implicates increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a driving force of the aging process, little is known about molecular mechanisms by which mitochondrial impairment might contribute to aging. Using cellular senescence as a model for human aging, we have recently reported partial uncoupling of the respiratory chain in senescent human fibroblasts. In the present communication, we address a potential cause-effect relationship between mitochondrial impairment and the appearance of a senescence-like phenotype in young cells. We found that treatment by antimycin A delays proliferation and induces premature senescence in a subset of the cells, associated with increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Quenching of ROS by antioxidants did however not restore proliferation capacity nor prevent premature senescence. Premature senescence is also induced upon chronic exposure to oligomycin, irrespective of ROS production, and oligomycin treatment induced the up-regulation of the cdk inhibitors p16, p21 and p27, which are also up-regulated in replicative senescence. Thus, besides the well-established influence of ROS on proliferation and senescence, a reduction in the level of oxidative phosphorylation is causally related to reduced cell proliferation and the induction of premature senescence.     

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of carcinogenesis

Our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of cancer of the gastrointestinal tract has increased dramatically over the last several decades. We are identifying new players in the pathways toward cancer with increasing frequency. In addition, we have come to understand that no single pathway acts by itself; in vivo, the effects are combinatorial. As new and better cell culture and animal models of carcinogenesis arise, our knowledge will continue to grow. As we learn more, we will be able to translate the results of our research into new and better techniques for the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal cancers.