Indexes and boundaries for “quantitative significance” in statistical decisions

Boundaries for S, representing a “quantitatively significant” or “substantively impressive” distinction, have not been established, analogous to the boundary of , usually set at 0.05, for the stochastic or probabilistic component of “statistical significance”. To determine what boundaries are being used for the “quantitative” decisions, we reviewed pertinent articles in three general medical journals. For each contrast of two means, contrast of two rates, or correlation coefficient, we noted the investigators' decisions about stochastic significance, stated in P values or confidence intervals, and about quantitative significance, indicated by interpretive comments.

The boundaries between impressive and unimpressive distinctions were best formed by a ratio of 1.2 for the smaller to the larger mean in 546 comparisons, by a standardized increment of 0.28 and odds ratio of 2.2 in 392 comparisons of two rates; and by an r value of 0.32 in 154 correlation coefficients. Additional boundaries were also identified for “substantially” and “highly” significant quantitative distinctions.

Although the proposed boundaries should be kept flexible, indexes and boundaries for decisions about “quantitative significance” are particularly useful when a value of δ must be chosen for calculating sample size before the research is done, and when the “statistical significance” of completed research is appraised for its quantitative as well as stochastic components.     

Effects of a prenatal “Information and Insights about Infants” program on the knowledge base of first-time low-education fathers one month postnatally

Pregnant women, in two clinics, one serving “low-risk” and the other serving “high risk” pregnancies, helped to recruit their male partners into a prenatal program. The 67 men, first-time fathers, all of low socio-economic status, were randomly assigned either to a control group or to an experimental group. The intervention group received two intensive 1 1#sh2 hour sessions of information and insights about infants in a small group within a clinical setting.

Father interviews and measures provided data on family parenting background; father attitudes towards infants; father perception of infants; father knowledge of when certain infant behaviors could be expected, couple dyadic adjustment, father social support, and father self-image. Postnatally fathers were videotaped with their infants during a feeding interaction. During the training sessions, detailed information about the behavioral capacities of the unborn#shnewborn and of infants during the first months of life were provided. Post test knowledge of infant scores of the experimental group were significantly higher #opp = 0.0001#cp than those of the comparison group.     

“pop-out” method of levonorgestrel implant removal

The “pop-out” technique is a method of levonorgestrel implant removal that uses digital pressure to direct implants through a small skin incision. This technique was developed, theoretically, to cause less bruising and patient discomfort by avoiding the use of instruments. The pop-out technique is the primary method used for levonorgestrel implant removal in the Magee-Womens Hospital resident clinic. We performed a retrospective analysis of levonorgestrel implant removals performed between July 1, 1995, and December 31, 1998. Of the 168 removals included in this analysis, 38 were performed by one of two attending physicians, and 130 were performed by the residents with attending supervision. The average time for removal was 12 ± 5 min (range 2.25–27 min) when the “pop-out” method could be used to remove all six implants, and 14 ± 7 min (range 2.25–59 min) for all removals. The removal time for residents was inversely proportional to the anticipated level of difficulty of the removal and to the number of previous removals performed. The removal time was significantly faster when residents were supervised by one of the attending physicians as compared with the other attending physician. Only 0.7% (7/1,008) of levonorgestrel implants were fragmented during removal. This review shows that the “pop-out” method is a reasonable alternative to other proposed methods of primary implant removal. The difference in the level of expertise of the attending physician may significantly influence removal time when training clinicians in levonorgestrel implant removal.     

“Potentially” contaminating behavioural practices in the preparation, feeding and storage of “ogi” — an infant cereal in a rural Nigerian community

Thirty households with children aged 6-18 months from four villages in the Badagry Local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria were studied. Open-ended unstructured ethnographic interviews were used to collect information on “potentially” contaminating food handling behaviour with particular reference to the preparation, feeding and storage of “ogi” an infant cereal. Focus group studies were conducted for women aged 18-45 years in the four villages to obtain more information.

Improper handwashing, widespread acceptance and use of feeding bottles, long storage and safety of place of storage were some of the “potentially” contaminating behavioural patterns identified.

Intensive health education on the dangers of feeding bottles, improper hand-washing and long storage of cooked “ogi” to the health of infants and young children is strongly recommended.     

The efficacy of the parent-teacher “partnership” of the 1990s

The 1990s are times of rapid social and technological change. There are many unknowns that face both adults and children. We all have problems that need resolution. The time when adults “knew” the answers and children learned by “watching” echo faintly in the whirl of scientific change which is impacting on most aspects of our daily life. As early childhood teachers we have to learn to enquire, to listen, to think together with children, their families and society. The concept of negotiation is central to communication while the basic tenet of the process focusses not on the person but the issue. It is in these times of rapid change that we need to deepen our understanding of the family and further our professional insights by “tapping” the wealth of crucial kndowledge that parents have about their children. Hurst asserts that the partnership of parents in issues of their children's education:

“is probably the greatest single opportunity for educational advance open to teachers today”.

Hurst: 1987; 109     

Resilient children: A longitudinal study of high achieving socially disadvantaged children

Current interest in “resilient” children -- those who are vulnerable to psycho-pathology yet achieve competence -- prompted a study of such children using data from the 1970 British birth cohort. The conceptual framework used to define a sample of “resilient” children within the cohort is described, and results from analyses designed to identify contextual, parenting and experiential factors which substantially increased the chance of resilience in vulnerable children are presented. Vulnerability was defined in terms of the family's socio-economic status when the child was 5, and a Competency Index, based on cognitive#sh educational attainment and behavioural adjustment at 10 years, determined which of the vulnerable group were “resilient”. The main finding was that having positive, supportive and interested parents was a major factor which enabled socially vulnerable children to achieve competence. Maternal depression -- a condition to which low SES mothers were at high risk -- substantially reduced the chance of resilience.     

Quality children's television: the case of “Lift Off”

“Lift off” is a new, innovative children's television series produced by the Australian Children's Television Foundation. It has been well received by critics, parents, educators and most significantly, by its three-to-eight year old target audience.

The program easily satisfies the five criteria for quality programming formulated by the Children's Program Committee of the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal. The typical half-hour program is dense, requiring close viewer attention but it is claimed that the viewer is rewarded for her viewing investment with an enriching and pleasurable experience. The doubt is raised that the socially disadvantaged segment of the child audience, who use television for diversion rather than enrichment, may not be prepared to make such an investment of viewing attention.

One final concern is voiced. The Foundation's official spokespeople publicly claim that “Lift Off” will enrich the lives of a whole age cohort. It is argued that such claims overemphasise the supposed direct consequences and impact of media messages on individuals.     

Children's Ways of Experiencing Peer Interaction

Educational practice in age integrated child groups rests on the assumption that children learn from their peers. The benefits of age integrated teaching is to enhance the value of heterogeneity in child groups. The fact that children are different from each other with different experiences is seen as an asset, which both children and teachers can benefit from. 22 children in a school class with children of mixed age; ranging from 7-9 years, were interviewed about their conceptions of peer interaction. How do children conceive peer collaboration, and what does it mean to children to teach someone something? A phenomenographic research approach is being used to discern the variation in ways of thinking about how children do when they teach someone something, and how they conceive peer collaboration at school. Children are conscious about the fact that they are able to teach their peers, and they can express this in different ways. Children also shift in their roles as “teacher” and “learner”. In some examples it is the “teacher” who plays the active role, in others it is the “learner” who has to be active by imitating the model/teacher.     

The paradox of “wonderful children”: The case of child abuse

In our society young children are generally considered to be “wonderful”. This dominant concept pervades not only parental thinking, but professional thinking as well. In the case of child abuse, however, profound contradictions can arise as a result. Professionals are primarily focused on children's welfare, while parents' views are much more ambiguous.

In our example of a Family Centre these contradictions are clearly illustrated, and we hope to draw conclusions as to what change in theory and practice could result from an analysis of contradictions.     

“Care Just Changes Your Life”: Factors Impacting upon the Mental Health of Children and Young People with Experiences of Care in Northern Ireland

This paper represents one element of a research project carried out into the mental health needs of children and young people with experiences of care in Northern Ireland. Focusing exclusively on qualitative data collected from 51 young people in care and aftercare, it discusses in the first instance how the challenges and difficulties faced by young people can manifest themselves in feelings and behaviours that may exemplify poor mental well-being. In doing so it provides an understanding of mental health in the context of these young people's lives. Through offering a more detailed account of some of the specific issues that put these young people at increased risk, it highlights areas for further work and consideration as a means of protecting them against these risks. These include: dealing with experiences prior to care; easing and “normalising” the experience of living in care; and enhancing “safety nets” after care. A key objective of the research is to inform policy and practice through the accounts of children and young people. It is argued that more work needs to be done to find creative ways of enhancing the day-to-day experiences of young people while in care and when leaving care.     

Parenting Advice School-Age Kids Offer to Parents to Promote Healthier Child Weight-Related Behaviors

ObjectiveTo explore parenting advice children would provide to help parents encourage positive health-related behaviors by children.DesignFocus group discussions were conducted, and children shared the advice they would provide parents to help them encourage healthy weight-related behaviors (ie, diet, physical activity, and sleep) for children.SettingFocus groups (n = 65) were conducted in 3 states (Florida, New Jersey, and West Virginia).ParticipantsSchool-age children (n = 194) between the ages of 6 and 11 years old.Phenomenon of InterestWhat parenting practices are recommended by children, and are they in line with best-practice guidelines?AnalysisFocus group data were analyzed to identify themes and trends.ResultsChildren's recommendations were congruent with authoritative parenting styles (ie, high levels of warmth and control). Most of the advice shared by children aligned with recommended parent practices (ie, responsive feeding, facilitation, environmental restructuring, parent modeling, and encouragement). However, not all of the children's advice aligned with best practices guidelines (ie, use of food rewards and deception).Conclusions And ImplicationsFuture nutrition education programs may be strengthened by helping parents adopt best practices for promoting healthy child behaviors. Furthermore, teaching children about recommended child feeding parenting practices may help protect future generations by preparing children to care for younger siblings or raise their children using best parenting practices.     

A randomized controlled trial of a new behavioral home-based nutrition education program, "Eat Well with CF," in adults with cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis (CF) remains the most common genetically inherited disease in the white population and its prognosis is affected by nutritional status. Adults with the disease are now surviving longer and new strategies are required to ensure that they maintain optimal nutrition. This article reports preliminary data from a randomized controlled trial of a 10-week home-based behavioral nutrition intervention, “Eat Well with CF.” Outcome measures of weight change over 6 and 12 months and changes in CF-specific nutrition knowledge score, self-efficacy score, reported dietary fat intake and health-related quality-of-life score were compared between the intervention group (n=34) and a standard care control group (n=34). The hypotheses to be tested were that adults with CF completing “Eat Well with CF” would have an improved nutritional status, improvement in specific nutrition knowledge, and an improvement in self-efficacy regarding their ability to cope with a special diet, compared to those receiving standard care. There were substantial improvements in the intervention group's specific CF nutrition knowledge score, self-efficacy score, and reported fat intake compared to control, but no substantial change in body mass index or health-related quality of life over time. Home-based nutrition education incorporating behavioral strategies can be an effective way to support adults with CF, enabling improvement in self-management skills in relation to diet and pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy. This study revealed gaps in basic nutrition knowledge and skills, inadequate knowledge of diet-disease links and pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy. These need to be identified when subjects progress from pediatric to adult care, and programs such as “Eat Well with CF” are a useful adjunct for registered dietitians trying to manage this diverse but growing population.     

When, How and Why Child Caregivers Respond to Children's Behaviors

In a qualitative study, 42 child caregivers participated in one of six focus groups. They were asked to address three questions in open-ended discussion. “What child behaviors are of concern to you?”, “How do you respond to these behaviors?”, and “How do you make the decision about your response?” Responses were analyzed and categorized to examine when, how, and why caregivers discipline young children. Results showed that aggression, not listening, and sexually-related behaviors were most often mentioned by caregivers as behaviors of concern to them. The most frequently mentioned disciplinary strategies were time-out, explanation, and redirection. The question related to how caregivers make decisions about responding to misbehaviors was analyzed in terms of attributions made by caregivers about misbehaviors. The majority of caregivers indicated that their response was dependent of the circumstances. Most frequently mentioned attributions were about the children themselves, for instance, their age, gender, or state. Also mentioned were home and family, society, caregiver emotion, and the child care setting. Results also showed that caregivers with higher levels of early childhood education and more experience, and those working with smaller group sizes and smaller adult-to-chiid ratios provided more thoughtful answers that were more congruent with developmental appropriateness.     

Social capital: an investment of “self” in children's learning

The concept, Social Capital, is devoting oneself affectively through implementing the CDA teaching behaviors so as to assure that children learn, like learning, and know how to learn. Since SC was previously verified as embodying five elements, the concept was investigated, using the “Preschool Teachers' Social Capital Questionnaire.” The subjects were 168 ECE teachers in both N.Y. [70] and D.C. [98], and their data were computed for appropriate measures of central tendency, variability, and relationships. The findings were: [1] subjects reported being trained in SC in their degree programs; [2] the five dimensions of SC were related to each other for teaching behaviors; [3] all SC dimensions except persistence#sh continuity over time related significantly to each other on all variables when examined separately; [4] persistence#shcontinuity over time was the one SC dimension that was positive but not significantly related to the others on training and investment of effort. Conclusion: The positive relationships support that teachers should be trained in SC and that SC should be used in teaching young children, although more study is recommended with a larger sample after the two aspects of persistence#shcontinuity over time are separated.     

“Call the police, okay?”: Social comparison by young children during play in preschool

The paper describes and analyzes several examples, drawn from an on-going research investigation, to examine various situations in which young children use social comparison to elicit understanding from a peer due to cognitive uncertainty. Data is drawn from naturalistic observations of 3,4, and 5-year-old children, enrolled in three classrooms of two nursery schools, serving predominantly white, middle class families. The children used social comparison for a variety of discoursal functions: to seek information, agreement, permission, compliance, verbal responsiveness and attention. The children were socially competent. On the whole, they accurately “sized up” a social situation, and successfully elicited verbal feedback from a peer that could be used to check their understanding.     

Optimism in Parental Predictions of Children's Future Behaviour

One important aspect of parents' beliefs about their children's development is that they may be biased towards optimism (Goodnow, Cashmore, Cotton, and Knight, 1984). To test this, 74 parents were asked to judge whether their 5-year-old children would increase or decrease on each of 10 personal qualities from the time of the written interview until the age of 15. Qualities could be rated positively or negatively; parents also rated the qualities' prevalence in girls or boys. Parents expected increases over age in the “male” quality of liking competition, the “female” quality of being able to sit still, and the neutral qualities of independence and self-confidence, while they expected decreases with age for the male quality of being sloppy and the female quality of being easily upset by mistakes. Thus there was no evidence that gender-appropriateness of a factor would override its positiveness. There were no significant gender effects; parents appeared to be optimistic about their child's future qualities, whether they were judging a daughter or son.     

Locus of control, attributional style and discipline problems in secondary schools

This article presents the findings of a study hypothesizing that school discipline problems are a maladaptive response to the demand of the school environment as a result of deficits in the area of locus of control and attributional style. The findings indicate that an external orientation of locus of control and a passive pattern of attribution remain significant predictors of discipline problems when other factors are held constant. The findings lend support to the idea of establishing programmes that “induce appropriate attributions” in children and train teachers to become aware of the attributional process in order to effectively deal with discipline problems in school. Cognitive re-structuring is suggested as an effective means of intervention aimed at disputing the irrational beliefs, which leads to positive effects and consequences. This study was conducted on a sample of three hundred and eighty-four students recruited from the junior forms of four secondary schools in Hong Kong.     

Therapeutic Touch and Healing Meditation: A Threesome with Education

The ancient art of laying on of hands has been used throughout the history of humankind. Almost every known culture of the present world, as well as a great many of the unearthed cultures of generations past, have practiced some form of healing through touch, magnetism, or visualization with meditation and/or substance stimulant. Modern medical therapeutic touch represents a meeting of science and spirit, seeking to legitimize intuitive human beliefs and instincts, through a new discipline, called psychoneuroimmunology, and age-old nursing practices renovating deep-rooted customs. Therapeutic touch is not limited to the medical or occult practitioners, however, but can enrich the lives of teachers, parents, relatives, your everyday person. The esoteric becomes practical when the principles are digested, and the person using it learns how to “center,” “balance,” and exude positive magnetic energy, blocking negative concepts. As old as the Bible, as new as modern technology, healing visualization and therapeutic touch combine to educate each interested human being to develop his or her infinite capacity.