Neonatal morbidity in pregnancy complicated by diabetes mellitus: predictive value of maternal glycemic profiles

The relationship between glycemic control and perinatal outcome was assessed in a relatively uniform population of 75 White Class B through D pregnant diabetic women. All patients used glucose reflectance meter self-monitoring and performed a minimum of four determinations daily. Mean capillary blood glucose was calculated from a minimum of 16 weeks of determinations. Regression analysis confirmed a correlation between these values and third-trimester hemoglobin A1 (p less than 0.001). The study population was divided into two groups on the basis of mean capillary blood glucose values: group I, mean capillary blood glucose less than 110 mg/dl (43 patients) (mean = 96.8 +/- 7.1); group II, mean capillary blood glucose greater than 110 mg/dl (32 patients) (mean = 126 +/- 9.0). Of the 32 patients in group II, eight had mean capillary blood glucose greater than or equal to 130 mg/dl. The degree of maternal glycemic control appeared to affect perinatal outcome. At least one form of infant morbidity was present in 33% of group I infants compared with 53% of group II. Significant differences were observed for the incidence of hypoglycemia (p less than 0.05), macrosomia (p less than 0.05), and respiratory distress syndrome (p less than 0.01). One of six group I infants delivered at 35 to 36 weeks developed respiratory distress syndrome, compared with four of seven group II patients. The appearance of phosphatidylglycerol in amniotic fluid appeared delayed in group II patients at term. These data suggest that maintaining mean capillary blood glucose values less than 110 mg/dl may serve to reduce several major forms of morbidity in the infant of the diabetic mother. This information is helpful in establishing objectives for glycemic control in pregnant women using self-monitoring techniques.     

Glycemic control in gestational diabetes mellitus--how tight is tight enough: small for gestational age versus large for gestational age?

The relationship between optimal levels of glycemic control and perinatal outcome was assessed in a prospective study of 334 gestational diabetic women and 334 subjects matched for control of obesity, race, and parity. All women with gestational diabetes mellitus were instructed in the use of a memory-based reflectance meter. They were treated with the same metabolic goal according to a predetermined protocol. Three groups were identified on the basis of mean blood glucose level throughout pregnancy (low, less than or equal to 86 mg/dl; mid, 87 to 104 mg/dl; and high, greater than or equal to 105 mg/dl). The low group had a significantly higher incidence of small-for-gestational-age infants (20%). In contrast, the incidence of large-for-gestational-age infants was 21-fold higher in the mean blood glucose category than in the low mean blood glucose category (24% vs. 1.4%, p less than 0.0001). An overall incidence of 11% small-for-gestational-age and 12% large-for-gestational-age infants was calculated for the control group. A significantly higher incidence of small-for-gestational-age infants (20% vs. 11%, p less than 0.001) was found between the control and the low category. In the high mean blood glucose category an approximate twofold increase was found in the incidence of large-for-gestational-age infants when compared with the control group (p less than 0.03). No significant difference was found between the control and mean blood glucose categories (87 to 104 mg/dl). Our data suggest that a relationship exists between level of glycemic control and neonatal weight. This information is helpful in targeting the level of glycemic control while optimizing pregnancy outcome in gestational diabetes comparable to the general population.     

Insulin-meal interval and short-term glucose fluctuation in tightly controlled gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of two insulin-meal intervals on short-term glucose fluctuations in tightly controlled gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). METHODS: We performed a prospective and paired study in 11 Japanese GDM women requiring insulin for good glycemic control during the third trimester. The women were subjected to test two insulin-meal intervals: 15 min and 30 min. Both regimens were examined in each patient in random order, 2 days apart. Blood glucose was measured by an automated glucose monitor every 2 min. Short-term glucose fluctuations of the two observations were analyzed by two-way ANOVA for repeated measurements with a post hoc t test (p < 0.05). Data were expressed as mean +/- SD. RESULTS: Daily glucose profiles of the two groups showed that their glycemic controls on the days of observation were good and that the two glucose profile curves were superimposable. A transient decrease in glucose (nadir 62 +/- 6 mg/dl) was observed at 6-10 min of meal ingestion in the 30-min regimen, which was significantly different from the glucose fluctuations during the 15-min regimen. The 2-h postprandial glucose levels were similar in both experiments. CONCLUSIONS: In women with tightly controlled GDM during the third trimester, insulin-meal intervals of 15 min are beneficial when compared with 30-min intervals, in that they avoid preprandial hypoglycemia without increasing 2-h postprandial hyperglycemia.     

Gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosed during early pregnancy

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to compare pregnancy complications, obstetric outcomes, and perinatal outcomes between women with early-onset and late-onset gestational diabetes mellitus. STUDY DESIGN: Fifty-gram oral glucose challenge screening was conducted among 3986 pregnant women at the time of their first antenatal visit. Women without abnormal results underwent another test at 24 to 28 weeks' gestation. Patients with gestational diabetes mellitus in early pregnancy were compared with those who had a normal glucose tolerance at the time of this first test but in whom diabetes subsequently developed. RESULTS: Women with early-onset gestational diabetes mellitus (n = 65) were likely to be hypertensive (18.46% vs 5.88%; P =.006) and had higher glycemic values and need for insulin therapy (33.85% vs 7.06%, P =.0000) than those in whom diabetes developed later (n = 170). All the cases of neonatal hypoglycemia (n = 4) and all perinatal deaths (n = 3) were within this group (P =.005 and P =.01, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Women with an early diagnosis of gestational diabetes represent a high-risk subgroup.     

Management of diabetes mellitus complicating pregnancy

Diabetes mellitus complicates 3-5% of all pregnancies and is a major cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality, as well as maternal morbidity. The availability of a variety of new insulins, the insulin pump, and self-monitoring of blood glucose have revolutionized the care of the pregnancy complicated by diabetes mellitus. However, challenges remain in caring for the pregnant patient with pregestational diabetes. Relatively few women receive preconceptional counseling, and major fetal malformations as a result of poor glucose control before and during the early weeks of gestation have emerged as the major cause of perinatal mortality. When the patient has diabetic vasculopathy, the obstetrician, maternal-fetal specialist, and/or endocrinologist and other members of the health care team must perform a challenging balancing act that promotes fetal health while minimizing maternal risk. As obesity increases in this country and our population becomes more diversified, the rate of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) will rise. Although there is controversy regarding which diagnostic standards to use for GDM, there is agreement that excellent blood glucose control, with diet and, when necessary, insulin will result in improved perinatal outcome. Finally, the goal of our educational programs should be not only to improve pregnancy outcome but also to promote healthy lifestyle changes for the mother that will last long after delivery.     

Diabetes complicating pregnancy

Despite the well-documented relationship between morbidity in pregnancy and pregestational maternal diabetes, the corrected perinatal outcome is, in most series, equal to or better than that of the general reference obstetric population. No single aspect or element of contemporary management is responsible for this improvement; rather, a combination of interventions seems responsible. Targeting delivery early in term, improved compliance, better glycemic control during pregnancy, improved control at conception, improved neonatal care, family planning, and early screening for fetal abnormalities all likely contribute to improved outcome. The currently observed rates of perinatal mortality suggest that an irreducible minimum mortality rate may be reached; however, large disparities in access to care and treatment continue to result in a wide range in rates of morbidity and mortality, a fact that pertains to outcomes in general as well as to pregnancies complicated by diabetes. The identification of women with lesser degrees of hyperglycemia as diabetic by lowering the thresholds for glucose tolerance test abnormality suggests an importance of the diagnosis that is not supported by evidence of either related morbidity or therapeutic benefit. The extrapolation of risk to women with lesser degrees of hyperglycemia seems to have little basis, and the management of women with mild glucose intolerance as if they had overt diabetes is unwarranted. The excess of resources dedicated to the identification and monitoring of an increasing number of women with mild abnormalities of glucose metabolism should prompt a reevaluation of these practices. Perinatal benefits of this expenditure are difficult to document or nonexistent, and there is a predictable increase in iatrogenic morbidities associated with the diagnosis. The exception in the most recent recommendations is the addition of a random glucose measure to screen for the rare women with overt undiagnosed diabetes who presents for prenatal care, because these women are at increased risk of morbidities related to diabetes. A curious statement was made in the summary and recommendations of the fourth International Congress on Gestational Diabetes: "There remains a compelling need to develop diagnostic criteria for GDM [gestational diabetes mellitus] that are based on the specific relationships between hyperglycemia and risk of adverse outcome." If these relationships are undefined, what is the import of the diagnosis? At the author's center, application of the new diagnostic thresholds for the diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus has increased the incidence to over 6%. Without a clear expectation of benefit, this increase represents an unsupportable investment of resources. What are the prospects for improving understanding of the relationships between glucose intolerance and pregnancy risks? The direction of new guidelines and recommendations seems to be moving away from resolution of the relationships. The new criteria result in the diagnosis of gestational diabetes in an increasing number of women who were previously normal. It is easier to differentiate women at an extreme of hyperglycemia from normal. Investigations will be even less able to identify attributable effects of glucose intolerance in pregnancy with the inclusion of women with lesser degrees of hyperglycemia. As evidenced in O'Sullivan's original series, women with fasting hyperglycemia in pregnancy are still presumed to be at increased risk of fetal death. This risk factor remains important in clinical management if insulin treatment, fetal surveillance, and early term delivery can reduce the risk of fetal loss. At the author's center, the relationships among outpatient measures of fasting glycemia, glucose tolerance testing results, and perinatal outcomes are evaluated. Preliminary results suggest that fasting glycemia measured at the time of a 50-g glucose tolerance test is significantly correlated with and as sensitive and predictive of morbidity as the glucose tolerance test diagnosis of gestational diabetes. If these results are confirmed, it will be difficult to rationalize continued glucose tolerance testing.     

Fetal pancreatic function in infants of diabetic and rhesus-isoimmunized women

OBJECTIVE: To measure insulin and glucagon concentrations in amniotic fluid (AF) collected near term in basal conditions and after an arginine test in diabetic, rhesus-isoimmunized, and control pregnant women. METHODS: At baseline, AF was collected from 44 diabetic, 32 rhesus-isoimmunized, and 27 control pregnant women in late pregnancy. Fifty-two diabetic, six rhesus-isoimmunized, and nine control pregnant women had amniocentesis 2 hours after arginine infusion (30 g intravenous/30 minutes) at 33-36 weeks. RESULTS: Baseline AF glucose concentrations were significantly greater in diabetic women than the other conditions, and they related to the gestational age in the women with hemolytic disease of the newborn. Insulin and glucagon AF content of isoimmunized pregnancies overlapped controls, whereas insulin and insulin/glucagon molar ratios were significantly higher, and glucagon values lower, in diabetic pregnancies compared with isoimmunized and control pregnancies. In isoimmunized pregnancies, the AF concentrations of glucose, insulin, and glucagon were correlated with gestational age (less than 34, 34 weeks or more). The samples collected after arginine infusion, compared with those collected at baseline, showed significantly greater insulin and insulin/glucagon molar ratio values in diabetic (28 +/- 5 versus 11 +/- 1 microU/mL, P = .001; 29.4 +/- 1.7 versus 12.0 +/- 2.8, P = .001) and in Rh pregnant women (18 +/- 6 versus 7.7 +/- 0.7 microU/mL, P = .001; 30 +/- 9 versus 3.4 +/- 0.4 I/G, P = .001), whereas no significant difference was observed in the controls. CONCLUSION: Basal islet hormone concentrations in AF are modified by maternal diabetes and further influenced by arginine administration. Arginine produces an AF response that is similar in pregnancies complicated by diabetes mellitus and rhesus-isoimmunization, despite different (hyperglycemia and euglycemia) maternal blood glucose levels.     

Insulin-meal interval and short-term glucose fluctuation in tightly controlled gestational diabetes mellitus

Objective: To study the effect of two insulin-meal intervals on short-term glucose fluctuations in tightly controlled gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Methods: We performed a prospective and paired study in 11 Japanese GDM women requiring insulin for good glycemic control during the third trimester. The women were subjected to test two insulin-meal intervals: 15 min and 30 min. Both regimens were examined in each patient in random order, 2 days apart. Blood glucose was measured by an automated glucose monitor every 2 min. Short-term glucose fluctuations of the two observations were analyzed by two-way ANOVA for repeated measurements with a post hoc t test ( p < 0.05). Data were expressed as mean &#45 SD. Results: Daily glucose profiles of the two groups showed that their glycemic controls on the days of observation were good and that the two glucose profile curves were superimposable. A transient decrease in glucose (nadir 62 &#45 6 mg/dl) was observed at 6-10 min of meal ingestion in the 30-min regimen, which was significantly different from the glucose fluctuations during the 15-min regimen. The 2-h postprandial glucose levels were similar in both experiments. Conclusions: In women with tightly controlled GDM during the third trimester, insulin-meal intervals of 15 min are beneficial when compared with 30-min intervals, in that they avoid preprandial hypoglycemia without increasing 2-h postprandial hyperglycemia.     

Glycemic control in the diabetic pregnancy: is tighter always better?

Glucose is the principal nutrient that the mother supplies to the fetus through the placenta by way of concentration-dependent mechanisms. In the presence of maternal hypoglycemia, with limited glucose supply, fetal hypoglycemia and hypoinsulinism ensue. This may be viewed as an adaptive mechanism to increase the chances of fetal survival in the face of limited maternal supply, albeit of a growth-restricted fetus. Fetal nutrient deprivation and the resulting hypoinsulinism may have both short- and long-term consequences. Intrauterine growth failure is associated with higher rates of gestational age-specific neonatal mortality and with long-term cognitive deficits. Furthermore, epidemiologic data suggest that diabetes, coronary artery disease, and hypertension are more common among adults who were small for gestational age at birth. Thus, pancreatic failure in adulthood may be either a response to excessive exposure to glucose as a result of maternal hyperglycemia, or as a result of hypoglycemia where nutrient deprivation leads to fetal growth restriction and reduced islet cell proliferation. Because low mean concentrations of maternal glucose in gestational diabetes are associated with an increased risk of fetal growth restriction, overzealous glycemic control during pregnancy may raise concerns regarding the possible effects on the infant. In the mother with Type 1 diabetes, strict glycemic control is often associated with an increased incidence of severe hypoglycemia. Up to 40% of women report at least one episode of severe hypoglycemia during pregnancy, requiring assistance by another person or professional intervention. It is quite possible that in some patients striving to optimize pregnancy outcome by maintaining the best possible glycemic control jeopardizes the well-being of the mother and the fetus. Thus, with respect to tight glycemic control of pregnant women with diabetes, the question arises: How tight is too tight? Is there a threshold below which the trade-off in terms of maternal morbidity as well as fetal growth restriction and its consequences outweighs the benefits of preventing the effects of maternal hyperglycemia?     

Management and outcome of pregnancy in diabetes mellitus, classes B to R

During the period 1971 to 1975, 260 women with diabetes mellitus, Classes B through R, were delivered of their infants at Los Angeles County Women's Hospital. The plan of patient management included frequent clinic visits and hospitalization to assure good control. A program of intensive antepartum fetal surveillance was begun at 34 weeks' gestation, with the use of daily 24 hour urinary estriol determinations and a weekly contraction stress test (CST). A lecithin/sphingomyelin ratio was evaluated for all patients before elective delivery. The perinatal mortality rate in these diabetic pregnant women was 46 per 1,000 as compared to 24 per 1,000 in the general population. Only three stillbirths occurred in the diabetic group, none within one week of a negative CST. Congenital malformations were responsible for almost half of the neonatal deaths. There were no deaths due to iatrogenic prematurity or trauma. Mean gestational age at delivery was 37.9 weeks and vaginal delivery was the mode for approximately half of the women. Two thirds of the infants did experience some morbidity.     

The effect of established and gestational diabetes on pregnancy outcome

OBJECTIVE--To study the prevalence and type of glucose intolerance in pregnancy and the effect of different types on perinatal mortality and fetal size. DESIGN--A prospective case-control study with data collected by patient interview and examination of all available records during a 16-months period between 1984 and 1986. SETTING--A large maternity hospital in Kuwait where diabetes in pregnancy is common. SUBJECTS--The cases were a consecutive sample of 731 women, delivered during the study period, recorded in the labour ward register as being diabetic or having abnormal glucose tolerance, the control group was formed from the next woman in the register (provided she was not known to be diabetic). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Type of diabetes followed the WHO classification, with subdivision depending on level of fasting plasma glucose. Type of perinatal death was examined in detail and birthweight centile calculated. RESULTS--Of the 731 cases, 22% were established diabetics, most were treated with oral hypoglycaemic drugs before pregnancy and insulin during pregnancy. Of those discovered during pregnancy, 43% were classified as gestational diabetes and the remainder as impaired glucose tolerance. Overall, 50% of cases were treated with insulin. Established diabetics had a perinatal mortality rate nearly four times greater than non diabetics (RR, 3.7, 95% CI 2.6 to 6.4) and for gestational diabetics RR was 2.0 95% CI 1.2 to 3.7). Unexplained deaths were particularly common, both in established diabetics (RR, 18.4, 95% CI 3.9 to 85.7) and in gestational diabetics (RR, 13.4, 95% (CI 2.9 to 61.6). Cases with impaired glucose tolerance had no stillbirths and had a lower perinatal loss than the controls, though this was not statistically significant. Heavier babies were seen in all case groups compared with controls, though the impaired glucose tolerance group had lower birthweights than the other two case groups. CONCLUSIONS--Type 2 diabetes was found to be common, most cases being diagnosed in pregnancy. Under the conditions found in Kuwait, diabetes, in the sense of a raised fasting glucose, is accompanied by a high rate of perinatal loss from unexplained stillbirth. This applies whether the condition was present before pregnancy or was discovered during pregnancy. Fetal macrosomia was also common in both situations. Impaired glucose tolerance, where fasting levels remain normal, does not appear to increase fetal loss, but may be associated with fetal macrosomia. As these women age they are likely to develop overt diabetes in the non-pregnant state, and subsequently to develop serious complications of this disease. Improving glycaemic control, both during preg     

妊娠期糖尿病不同诊断标准适宜性的比较

目的 比较妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)不同诊断标准的适宜性.方法 通过对北京大学第一医院产科2005年1月至2009年12月期间分娩的、孕周≥28周且接受规范的GDM筛查和诊断的非孕前糖尿病产妇14 593例的病历资料进行回顾性分析,比较按照美国国家糖尿病数据组(NDDG)和国际糖尿病与妊娠研究组(IADPSG)诊断标准计算的妊娠期高血糖的发生率及对妊娠结局的影响;并比较对妊娠期高血糖进行管理后不良妊娠结局的改善情况,以同期妊娠分娩的12 403例糖代谢正常孕妇为对照.结果 (1)妊娠期高血糖的发生率:分别按照NDDG、IADPSG标准,需要干预的妊娠期高血糖的发生率分别为8.9%(1293/14 593)和14.7%(2138/14 593),两种标准诊断的需要干预的妊娠期高血糖发生率比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).(2)妊娠并发症发生情况:不同标准诊断的妊娠期高血糖均将增加巨大儿、大于胎龄儿(LGA)、剖宫产、早产、新生儿低血糖等不良结局的发生率.NDDG、IADPSG标准诊断的妊娠期高血糖和糖代谢正常孕妇巨大儿的发生率分别为8.4%(108/1293)、11.3%(241/2138)和6.7%(835/12 403);LGA的发生率分别为9.7%(125/1293)、11.7%(250/2138)和5.5%(687/12 403);剖宫产率分别为59.0%(763/1293)、60.4%(1291/2138)和51.6%(6397/12 403);早产率分别为11.4%(147/1293)、9.5%(203/2138)和6.3%(777/12 403);新生儿低血糖发生率分别为2.6%(33/1293)、2.2%(46/2138)和0.7%(89/12 403).(3)血糖控制方法:按NDDG标准诊断的妊娠期高血糖孕妇中71.3%(922/1293)可以通过单纯饮食控制达到血糖控制满意.结论 与NDDG标准比较,IADPSG标准诊断的妊娠期高血糖发生率将明显增加,如果未进行管理其围产期并发症也明显增加;提示在我国采用IADPSG标准更适宜.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate the relationship between gestational hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes and find out the optimum diagnostic criteria of gestational diabetes mellitus in China. Methods A retrospective population-based study of 14 593 pregnant women, who delivered between Jan. 2005 and Dec. 2009 and accepted the gestational diabetes mellitus ( GDM ) screening and diagnosis was performed. The prevalence of gestational hyperglycemia according to different criteria was calculated, and the incidence of adverse pregnant outcomes relation to gestational hyperglycemia according to different criteria was analyzed. Results ( 1 ) According to National Diabetes Data Group (NDDG) criteria and International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) criteria, the prevalence of gestational hyperglycemia that intervention required was 8.9% (1293/14 593 ) and 14.7% (2138/14 593 )respectively; the prevalence of gestational hyperglycemia differed significantly between NDDG and IADPSG criteria ( P ＜ 0. 05 ). ( 2 ) The prevalence of macrosomia, large for gestational ages ( LGA), cesarean section,preterm birth and neonatal hypoglycemia etc would increase in gestational glucose metabolic disorders according to any criteria. The prevalence of the complications in gestational hyperglycemia according to NDDG criteria, IADPSG criteria and the patients with normal glucose metabolism is as follows, macrosomia:8.4% ( 108/1293), 11.3% (241/2138) and 6. 7% ( 835/12 403 ); LGA: 9. 7% ( 125/1293 ), 11.7% (250/2138) and 5.5% (687/12 403); cesarean section: 59. 0% (763/1293), 60. 4% ( 1291/2138 ) and 51.6%(6397/12403); preterm birth: 11.4% (147/1293), 9.5% (203/2138) and 6.3% (777/12 403); neonatal hypoglycemia: 2. 6% ( 33/1293 ), 2. 2% (46/2138) and 0. 7% ( 89/12 403 ). ( 3 )About 71.3% (922/1293) of the gestational hyperglycemia according to NDDG criteria could be well control only by diet control. Conclusion The prevalence of perinatal complications would increase in gestational hyperglycemia that achieved IADPSG criteria without intervention, so IADPSG criteria is reasonable in China.     

Diabetes mellitus in pregnancy in an African population.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the pregnancy outcome among diabetic and non-diabetic Nigerian women. METHODS: A retrospective case record review of 200 pregnant diabetic patients and control was carried out over a 10-year period (1990-1999) at the Maternity unit of the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital Enugu, Nigeria. RESULTS: The prevalence of diabetes mellitus among pregnant mothers was 1.7%. Pre-gestational diabetes mellitus accounted for 39% of cases while gestational diabetes was responsible for 61% of them. Late antenatal booking and poor control of diabetes mellitus were common features, while maternal and fetal morbidity was high. Hypertension, vulvovaginitis, premature labor, polyhydramnios and ketoacidosis were significantly higher among diabetic mothers than controls. The perinatal mortality was also higher among diabetics than controls (12.5% vs. 3.5%) with stillbirth being the major contributor. Patients with gestational diabetes were at increased risk of fetal macrosomia than controls (28.7% vs. 5.5%). The overall cesarean section rate was high (36%) among diabetics with previous cesarean section and cephalopelvic disproportion being the commonest indications. CONCLUSIONS: Health education and provision of modern affordable methods of management of diagnosed cases such as uristix and hemastix will improve maternal and fetal outcome in pregnant diabetics in Africa.     

Insulin-sensitivity index and carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in gestational diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To study insulin action in normal and gestational diabetic pregnant women by using an insulin tolerance test. STUDY DESIGN: Twenty-four women diagnosed as having gestational diabetes were compared to 22 nondiabetic, matched controls. The insulin-tolerance test (ITT) consisted of an intravenous bolus of 0.1 IU/kg of regular insulin with glucose sampling at -5, 0, 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 minutes. The insulin sensitivity index (ISI) was assessed by using a delta G/G0 ratio (G0 = initial glycemia level, delta G = variation between G0 and glycemia level obtained at 15 minutes by calculation of the regression plot). RESULTS: Two women had glucose levels < 50 mg/dL at 15 minutes, without clinical symptoms. Women with gestational diabetes had a significantly lower level than those with normal glucose tolerance. The rate of abnormal insulin resistance (ISI) (< 10th percentile in the control group) was significantly higher in the insulin-treated subgroup (8/11, 72.7%, vs. 2/12, 16.6%). ISI correlated negatively with glycemia (r = -.38, P = .01) and glycosylated hemoglobin (r = -.50, P = .001) and correlated positively with low density lipoprotein-c (r = -.40, P = .01) and apolipoprotein B (r = -.42, P = .01). In the gestational diabetes group, ISI was correlated negatively with gestational age (r = -.50, P = .01) and triglycerides (r = -.50, P = .01). CONCLUSION: ITT seems to be a safe and rapid method of measuring in vivo insulin action in pregnant women. Women with gestational diabetes had higher insulin resistance, especially those who needed insulin therapy. Lipid profile in gestational diabetes was related to the level of insulin resistance.     

The association between preeclampsia and the severity of gestational diabetes: the impact of glycemic control

OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine if the rate of preeclampsia is related to the severity of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), and if it can be decreased by optimizing glycemic control. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective analysis of prospectively collective data of 1813 patients with GDM was performed to determine the rate of preeclampsia. Patients were stratified after treatment was begun by level of glycemic control (well controlled was defined as mean blood glucose <95 mg/dL). The extent of hyperglycemia was analyzed by the level of the abnormality in the oral GTT and by the degree of abnormality of daily glucose control after treatment has begun. Severity of GDM was categorized using fasting plasma glucose (FPG) on a 3-hour oral GTT by 10 mg/dL increments. RESULTS: Overall, preeclampsia was diagnosed in 9.6% (174/1813) of diabetic patients. The GDM subjects who developed preeclampsia were significantly younger, had a higher nulliparity rate, were more obese, and gained significantly more weight during pregnancy. However, no difference was found in glycemic profile characteristics between the 2 groups. A comparison between patients with FPG <105 and FPG >105 revealed that the rate of preeclampsia increased significantly, 7.8% vs 13.8%, (O.R 1.81, 95%CI 1.3-2.51). For GDM patients with only mild hyperglycemia (FPG <105 mg/dL), no significant difference was found in the rate of preeclampsia. Preeclampsia rate was further evaluated in relation to level of glycemic control; for the well-controlled patients (mean blood glucose [MBG] <95 mg/dL, n=994), similar rates of preeclampsia were found between each category of FPG severity. In contrast, in poorly controlled patients (MBG >95 mg/dL, n=819), a comparison between severity threshold of FPG <115 and FPG >115 revealed that the preeclampsia rate was 9.8% vs 18% (O.R 2.56, 95%C.I. 1.5-4.3). In a logistic regression model, only prepregnancy BMI (O.R 2.3, 95%CI 1.16-2.30) and severity of GDM (O.R 1.7, 95%CI 1.21-2.38) were independently and significantly associated with an increased risk of preeclampsia. CONCLUSION: The rate of preeclampsia is influenced by the severity of GDM and prepregnancy BMI. Optimizing glucose control during pregnancy may decrease the rate of preeclampsia, even in those with a greater severity of GDM.     

Doppler velocimetry of the umbilical artery in pregnancies complicated by insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

The purpose of this study was to investigate vascular resistance by Doppler ultrasound in the umbilical artery of insulin-dependent diabetics longitudinally over the course of pregnancy. Special interest was put on the effects of glycemic control and maternal vascular disease on the flow velocity waveform (FVW) and the predictive value of Doppler flow measurements with regard to perinatal morbidity. Using a duplex-pulsed wave scanner, the resistance-index (PR index) in the umbilical artery was calculated. The mean value of a 24-h blood glucose profile and the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin (HBA1C) were used as parameters of metabolic control. 53 pregnant diabetic women were examined longitudinally during the course of pregnancy on average on three occasions (range: 1-7) between 17 weeks of gestation and delivery at 37.7 +/- 1.3 (mean +/- SD) weeks. To test the predictive value of Doppler flow velocimetry with regard to perinatal morbidity the results were compared to the FVWs measured in the umbilical arteries of 30 non-diabetic women with normal fetal outcome. Vascular resistance in the umbilical artery of the diabetics declined significantly during the course of pregnancy, with a mean PR index of 0.729 (SD 0.051) at 17 weeks and 0.603 (SD 0.083) at the end of pregnancy (P < 0.002). The majority of PR indices were within the range reported for normal pregnancy and measured in the non-diabetic women. Regression analysis showed no significant correlation between vascular resistance and mean blood glucose level (r = 0.1325) or concentration of HBA1C (r = -0.0519). Maternal vascular disease had no effect on umbilical FVWs.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Normal perinatal mortality in type 1 diabetes mellitus in a series of 300 consecutive pregnancy outcomes

Reports of outcomes of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes have consistently found increased perinatal mortality and morbidity. The primary objective of our study was to compare the perinatal mortality rate in type 1 diabetic pregnancies with that of the general population. The secondary objective was to compare the morbidities in these groups. A series of 247 women with type 1 diabetes had 300 consecutive pregnancy outcomes analyzed over a 10-year period. They were compared with the control population from the same hospital. Perinatal mortality was 6.6/1000 (95% CI, 0-17), which was significantly lower than the control population rate of 31/1000. There was an increased incidence of morbidity including maternal hypertension, cesarean section, preterm delivery, birth injury, large for gestational age infants, admissions to neonatal intensive care, neonatal hypoglycemia, and phototherapy. Pregnancies in type 1 diabetes can be associated with a normal perinatal mortality rate although morbidity remains elevated compared with controls.     

Could serum levels of irisin be used in gestational diabetes predicting?

ObjectiveGestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a metabolic disorder during pregnancy leading to acute and chronic complications in both mother and newborn. The pathogenesis of GDM has not been fully understood, However, since the disease shares risk factors with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a relationship between these two disease states is plausible. The recently discovered peptide irisin has been hypothesized to be a regulator of body metabolism. However, studies ended up with controversial results. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the relationship between irisin levels and gestational diabetes mellitus and the possible benefits of the metabolic profile.Materials and methodsWe performed a cross-sectional analysis of circulating levels of irisin in 100 pregnant women similar for age and body mass index and the groups included 50 gestational diabetic patients and 50 healthy pregnant volunteers. Serum irisin levels were measured by ELISA kit.ResultsMean age and body mass index levels were similar in both groups. Median HbA1c, fasting blood glucose, Glucose 1 h, Glucose 2 h and fasting insülin levels were higher in with gestational diabetic patients compared to the control group. In gestational diabetic group, the median irisin level was lower than in the control group.ConclusionSerum irisin levels were lower in gestational diabetic patients. Further investigations are needed to explore the underlying biological effects of irisin on pregnant women.     

Oral glucose tolerance test is a poor predictor of hyperglycemia during pregnancy

In an effort to assess the efficacy of the oral glucose tolerance test to detect patients with gestational diabetes mellitus who require therapeutic measures to maintain normoglycemia, we compared the results of an oral glucose tolerance test with those of a home glucose profile consisting of three postprandial glucose values in 250 pregnant women. The OGTT overestimated the occurrence of hyperglycemia by 28%, while the home glucose profile underestimated the occurrence of hyperglycemia by 5%. Pregnancy outcome was not significantly different between spontaneously normoglycemic women and those who required therapy. One cannot effectively identify the ten percent largest infants in the population by screening for gestational diabetes.     

Sex hormone-binding globulin in gestational diabetes

BACKGROUND: Insulin is an important regulator of serum sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) concentration which works by inhibiting its production in hepatocytes. Low SHBG level is associated with increased insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. Our purpose was to compare maternal serum SHBG level between normal and gestational diabetic pregnant women and to study the relationships between SHBG, SHBG/insulin and SHBG/glucose ratio and several endocrine, metabolic and clinical parameters. METHODS: Serum SHBG concentrations were measured in 34 women with gestational diabetes and in 32 matched controls. Glucose, insulin, C-peptide, fructosamine, beta-HCG, cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein A, apolipoprotein B, total and free T4, total and free estriol, T3 and IGF-1 were measured. Insulin sensitivity was estimated using the short insulin tolerance test. RESULTS: SHBG, SHBG/insulinemia ratio and SHBG/glucose ratio were significantly lower in the diabetic group (309.54 +/- 112.22 vs 460.54 +/- 144.54, p = 0.00001), (33.55 +/- 16.62 vs 72.56 +/- 66.50, p = 0.0006 using log-transformed values), (5.88 +/- 1.87 vs 3.39 +/- 1.23, p < 0.00001). SHBG was negatively correlated with insulinemia (r = -0.40, p = 0.001), C-peptide (r = -0.41, p = 0.001), glycemia (r = -0.27, p = 0.02), diastolic blood pressure (r = -0.41, p = 0.001) and beta-HCG (r = -0.41, p = 0.001) and positively correlated with LDL-c (r = 0.25, p = 0.04) and apolipoprotein B (r = 0.33, p = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: SHBG concentrations are lower in gestational diabetic pregnant women and are related to insulin levels but not to peripheral insulin sensitivity. Since insulinemia was similar in normal and gestational diabetic pregnant women, we speculate that gestational diabetes is characterized by a higher peripheral insulin resistance, a fasting normal insulinemia and a higher hepatic insulin sensitivity, at least in other actions than on carbohydrate metabolism. The role of sex steroids, T4 and IGF-1 in regulating SHBG appears to be limited during pregnancy.