Differential diagnosis of jaundice. Hepatocellular versus obstructive disease

The patient with jaundice may be accurately diagnosed through clinical history, physical findings, and noninvasive laboratory and radiologic examinations available in most community hospitals. Ultrasonography is usually the procedure of choice in initial evaluation, but if acute cholecystitis is suspected, hepatobiliary scintigraphy is highly reliable and easy to perform. Computed tomography (CT) should be used if ultrasonography has not yielded the information needed; however, transient biliary obstruction cannot be diagnosed with CT unless ductal dilatation is present. The presence of laboratory data indicative of almost certain parenchymal liver disease should alert the physician to avoid unnecessary tests that are both costly and potentially dangerous. The final assessment of biliary duct patency may require transhepatic or retrograde cholangiography. Both procedures are effective but carry important potential complications.     

Impaired gallbladder function in spinal cord injury on quantitative Tc-99m DISIDA cholescintigraphy

Background: Patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) have increased prevalences of gallstones and acute acalculous cholecystitis. A possible explanation for the increased prevalence of gallstone disease in SCI patients is decreased gallbladder motility causing gallbladder stasis, a known risk factor for gallstone disease. We investigated gallbladder function in SCI. Methods: Twenty-five normal control subjects and 50 SCI patients were included in this study. Gallbladder function was measured by technium 99m–labeled imino-diacetic acid analogue (Tc-99m DISIDA) cholescintigraphy and represented by the filling fraction (FF) and the ejection fraction (EF). The SCI patients were assigned to subgroups: old versus young, female versus male, high- versus low-level injury, and long versus short injury duration. Results: Forty-two percent of SCI patients had abnormal FFs and 54% of SCI patients had abnormal EFs. Significantly decreased FF and EF values were found in SCI patients, especially in those who were female and had high-level injuries. Conclusion: With the use of quantitative Tc-99m DISIDA cholescintigraphy, we found that SCI can significantly impair gallbladder function.     

Radiologic evaluation of the jaundiced patient. Diagnostic and therapeutic role of current procedures

Radiologic evaluation of the jaundiced patient generally begins with ultrasound. Computed tomography may provide better information regarding the exact level of obstruction, but it is more expensive and time-consuming than ultrasound and carries the risk associated with intravenous contrast. It thus should be used only when ultrasound findings are likely to be inadequate. Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography are both relatively safe, reliable procedures for direct opacification of the biliary tree. The choice depends on clinical and ultrasound findings. Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography provides a foundation for percutaneous drainage if necessary. Cholescintigraphy in the jaundiced patient provides physiologic information but poor anatomic detail. It is useful in establishing common duct functional patency.     

Hepatobiliary imaging

A patient's clinical presentation should prompt an imaging evaluation that is cost effective for accurate diagnosis and leads to appropriate treatment of gallbladder inflammatory disease. In the setting of recurrent biliary colic, chronic cholecystitis is the main diagnostic consideration. Imaging hallmarks include gallstones and gallbladder wall thickening for which ultrasonography is uniquely suited. When a patient appears more toxic with right upper quadrant pain, one would more strongly consider acute cholecystitis. Because the morbidity and mortality of acute cholecystitis are reduced with early cholecystectomy, it is incumbent upon the clinician to make the diagnosis promptly and accurately. Hepatobiliary imaging with an IDA derivative has proven superior sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy for this condition. The examination has validity because it detects cystic duct obstruction, the primary pathophysiologic event responsible for most acute calculous and acalculous disease. Utilizing morphine augmentation when delayed filling is present has reduced the total examination time to less than 2 hours. Use of ancillary findings including gallbladder hyperemia and the "hot rim" sign help predict complicated cholecystitis, enabling more urgent intervention. The bulk of data presented in this review supports hepatobiliary imaging as the modality of first choice in the evaluation of acute cholecystitis. In the intensive care setting, where acalculous disease and atypical presentations are common, hepatobiliary imaging also plays a major role. We recommend liberal use of Sincalide pretreatment, morphine augmentation, and delayed images to promote gallbladder filling. If the gallbladder is nonvisualizing despite these maneuvers, sonography is often added as an aid to detect secondary signs of acute cholecystitis and help confirm the diagnosis with greater certainty prior to high-risk surgery.     

Cholescintigraphy for acute cholecystitis: False positive results caused by chronic cholecystitis

We investigated the effect of the severity of chronic cholecystitis on the incidence of false positive cholescintigrams in the diagnosis of acute cholecystitis. In a 4-year period 66 patients underwent cholescintigraphy (without evidence of significant hepatocellular disease or biliary tract obstruction) followed within 6 days by surgical removal of the gallbladder. At histopathology the gallbladders were categorized as normal, acute cholecystitis, or chronic cholecystitis. In addition, the severity of chronic cholecystitis was graded on a three-point scale. Using nonvisualization of the gallbladder for up to 4 h as the criterion for acute cholecystitis, the sensitivity and specificity for acute cholecystitis were 97 and 66%, respectively. Of the 35 gallbladders without acute cholecystitis, 4 were normal and the rest had various grades of chronic cholecystitis. The incidence of false positive studies increased with the severity of chronic cholecystitis (p<0.05). In addition, there were no false positive studies among the normal gallbladders and all gallbladders with grade three chronic cholecystitis gave false positive results. The data suggests that the severity of chronic cholecystitis affects the likelihood of obtaining false positive results with cholescintigraphy in the diagnosis of acute cholecystitis.     

磁共振胰胆管成像在腹腔镜胆囊切除术前评估中的应用

目的探讨腹腔镜胆囊切除术(LC)治疗胆囊结石伴急性胆囊炎术前应用磁共振胰胆管成像(MRCP)进行评估的临床价值。方法回顾性分析胆囊结石伴急性胆囊炎拟行LC 64例患者的病例资料。所有患者均行B超检查后收治入院,术前行MRCP检查分析肝外胆管变异和排除胆总管结石。结果 2例患者发现胆囊管解剖变异,3例胆总管下端结石患者行开腹胆总管切开取石胆囊切除+"T"管引流术,余61例均行LC。结论胆囊结石伴急性胆囊炎患者LC术前行MRCP检查,有助于观察肝外胆管变异和胆总管结石情况,减少术中胆管损伤和胆总管结石残余的发生。     

超声诊断在腹腔镜胆囊切除术前后的应用价值

目的：对２１１８例超声诊断胆囊病变与ＬＣ结果进行回顾性分析。方法：探讨超声在腹腔镜下胆囊切除术（ＬＣ）前后的诊断价值。结果：超声诊断与ＬＣ符合率９９．７％;超声正确诊断提供了手术适应症和手术方式的选择,适应症范围扩大到八种胆囊疾患;超声监视术后并发症的发生和变化,超声引导下穿刺治疗肝下少量积液;萎缩性胆囊炎伴结石者中粘连严重病例可做大部分胆囊切除术;对胆囊管结石中的８例嵌顿者在ＬＣ下尝试胆囊管切开取石术,获得成功。结论：超声诊断胆囊疾病准确,为选择手术治疗提供依据,并可监视并发症的发生以及引导穿刺治疗,具有极大的实用价值     

Three-dimensional sonographic evaluation of gallbladder contractility: comparison with cholescintigraphy

PURPOSE: To compare three-dimensional sonography (3D US) with quantitative cholescintigraphy for assessing gallbladder contractility. METHODS: Gallbladder radioactivity was assessed in 35 patients with suspected gallbladder disease using a gamma camera 5, 30, 60, and 90 minutes after technetium 99m (Tc-99m) DISIDA injection and 30 and 60 minutes after ingestion of a high-fat meal. Immediate gallbladder images were obtained via 3D US. Gallbladder radioactivity at 120 minutes after injection of Tc-99m DISIDA was defined as 100%, and gallbladder contractility was calculated. Gallbladder volume on 3D US was calculated using a dedicated software. Pearson correlation analysis and simple linear regression analysis were used. RESULTS: The mean gallbladder volume on 3D US was 25.3 ml after fasting and 6.6 ml after a high-fat meal. The mean gallbladder contractility index was 77.7% on cholescintigraphy (range, 18-99) and 73.4 on 3D US (range, 16.7-97.3). A linear correlation between cholescintigraphy and 3D US contractility indices was observed. The r value on Pearson analysis was 0.92 and R(2) of the coefficient of determination was 0.85. The difference in measured contractility between the 2 methods ranged from +21.5% to -15.0% (mean +/- SD, 4.4 +/- 8.7%). CONCLUSIONS: 3D US is a reliable and easy method for clinical measurement of the volume of the gallbladder and its contractility.     

高频超声在颌下腺导管结石诊断中的价值

目的探讨高频超声在颌下腺导管结石诊断中的应用价值。方法19例颌下腺导管结石,应用高频超声观察腺体内外导管扩张及结石位置,颌下腺形态、大小、内部回声、彩色多普勒血流(CDFI),周缘淋巴结,并与手术病理结果对照。结果超声确诊18例,漏诊1例,诊断符合率94.7%。颌下腺导管结石位于腺内3例、腺体与主导管交界处4例、主导管内12例,伴有导管内径扩张17例,不扩张2例。腺体内部回声不同程度减低,欠均匀或不均匀。CDFI示颌下腺慢性炎症血流信号不丰富,慢性炎症伴急性发作血流信号丰富。结论高频超声对颌下腺导管结石诊断准确性高,二维声像图表现伴CDFI检查血流增加提示颌下腺急性炎症,对临床选择治疗方式有较大帮助,可作为首选的检查方法。     

Rare variant of pancreaticobiliary maljunction associated with pancreas divisum in a child diagnosed and treated by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: A case report

BACKGROUND Pancreaticobiliary maljunction(PBM) is an uncommon congenital anomaly of the pancreatic and biliary ductal system, defined as a union of the pancreatic and biliary ducts located outside the duodenal wall. According to the Komi classification of PBM, the common bile duct(CBD) directly fuses with the ventral pancreatic duct in all types. Pancreas divisum(PD) occurs when the ventral and dorsal ducts of the embryonic pancreas fail to fuse during the second month of fetal development. The coexistence of PBM and PD is an infrequent condition.Here, we report an unusual variant of PBM associated with PD in a pediatric patient, in whom an anomalous communication existed between the CBD and dorsal pancreatic duct.CASE SUMMARY A boy aged 4 years and 2 mo was hospitalized for abdominal pain with nausea and jaundice for 5 d. Abdominal ultrasound showed cholecystitis with cholestasis in the gallbladder, dilated middle-upper CBD, and a strong echo in the lower CBD, indicating biliary stones. The diagnosis was extrahepatic biliary obstruction caused by biliary stones, which is an indication for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography(ERCP). ERCP was performed to remove biliary stones. During the ERCP, we found a rare communication between the CBD and dorsal pancreatic duct. After clearing the CBD with a balloon, an 8.5 Fr 4-cm pigtail plastic pancreatic stent was placed in the biliary duct through the major papilla. Six months later, his biliary stent was removed after he had no symptoms and normal laboratory tests. In the following 4-year period, the child grew up normally with no more attacks of abdominal pain.CONCLUSION We consider that ERCP is effective and safe in pediatric patients with PBM combined with PD, and can be the initial therapy to manage such cases,especially when it is combined with aberrant communication between the CBD and dorsal pancreatic duct.     

Nonvisualized gallbladder on oral cholecystography: Implications for lithotripsy

Currently, most protocols evaluating the efficacy of gallstone lithotripsy require a visualized gallbladder on oral cholecystography (OCG). The primary purpose of the OCG is to establish that the cystic duct is patent. When the gallbladder is visualized on OCG, it can also be used to number and size gallstones accurately. Patients with nonvisualization of the gallbladder on OCG are excluded from consideration for lithotripsy. The purpose of this study was to evaluate retrospectively the ultrasonographic findings (i.e., number and sizes of stones in 32 patients with nonvisualization on the OCG). In 11 patients (34%) ultrasound (US) did not detect any stone, and it is presumed that the gallbladder failed to visualize for other reasons. Six patients (19%) had one or two stones and 15 (47%) patients had more than three stones. This suggests that 20% of patients with nonvisualization of the gallbladder on OCG would otherwise be eligible for lithotripsy provided that patency of the cystic duct can be demonstrated by other means, such as computed tomographic (CT) examination with oral biliary contrast or cholescintigraphy.     

Gallstones: A Menace in Cholecystic Disease

Gallstones represent a real hazard in acute cholecystic disease because of the possibility of the development of such dangerous complications as acute cholecystitis, obstruction of the common duct, choledochitis, intestinal obstruction due to gallstones, acute and chronic pancreatitis and carcinoma of the gallbladder. Therefore, every patient with gallstones should have them removed, whether or not they are producing symptoms, provided there are no contraindications to operation.     

Point-of-care ultrasound diagnosis of pediatric cholecystitis in the ED

Objective

The diagnosis of cholecystitis or biliary tract disease in children and adolescents is an uncommon occurrence in the emergency department and other acute care settings. Misdiagnosis and delays in diagnosing children with cholecystitis or biliary tract disease of up to months and years have been reported in the literature. We discuss the technique and potential utility of point-of-care ultrasound evaluation in a series of pediatric patients with suspected cholecystitis or biliary tract disease.

Methods

We present a nonconsecutive case series of pediatric and adolescent patients with abdominal pain diagnosed with cholecystitis or biliary tract disease using point-of-care ultrasound. The published sonographic criteria is 3 mm or less for the upper limits of normal gallbladder wall thickness and is 3 mm or less for normal common bile duct diameter (measured from inner wall to inner wall) in children. Measurements above these limits were considered abnormal, in addition to the sonographic presence of gallstones, pericholecystic fluid, and a sonographic Murphy's sign.

Results

Point-of care ultrasound screening detected 13 female pediatric patients with cholecystitis or biliary tract disease when the authors were on duty over a 5-year period. Diagnoses were confirmed by radiology imaging or at surgery and surgical pathology.

Conclusions

Point-of-care ultrasound to detect pediatric cholecystitis or biliary tract disease may help avoid misdiagnosis or delays in diagnosis in children with abdominal pain.     

双源CT在肝外胆道梗阻疾病诊断中的价值

目的：探讨双源CT（dual-source computed tomography,DSCT）在肝外胆道梗阻疾病诊断中的价值。方法总结分析120例病理或临床治疗证实的肝外胆道梗阻疾病患者的DSCT影像资料。结果胆管结石71例,胆管炎12例,胆总管囊肿1例,十二指肠乳头区憩室1例,胆道蛔虫1例,胆管癌14例,壶腹癌3例,胆囊癌4例,胰腺癌12例。全部病例均显示肝外胆道扩张,其中78例伴肝内胆管扩张,22例呈现“双管征”。梗阻末段胆总管内可见“靶征”或“半月征”,不规则软组织影及片状、管状影,邻近胆管壁可见增厚、毛糙等;Ⅲ期强化程度不一或无强化。在肝外胆道梗阻性疾病诊断中,DSCT定位的准确率为100%,定性符合率为92.5%。结论 DSCT显示肝外胆道梗阻性病变的位置、形态、大小、密度以及相邻组织结构准确清晰,对疾病定位、定性和临床治疗的选择具有重要价值。     

A Difficult Differential Diagnosis of Acute Cholecystitis in a Patient With Steroid-induced Diabetes

An impairment of gallbladder motility due to autonomic neuropathy may cause cholestasis and result in gallbladder stone formation. Diabetes is one of risk factors for acute cholecystitis. Diabetes and steroid use are associated with the susceptibility to bacterial infections, we are apt to diagnose steroid-induced diabetic patients manifesting symptoms of cholecystitis as having acute bacterial infective cholecystitis. Here, we report a very rare steroid-induced diabetic patient complicated with gallbladder torsion-induced necrotizing cholecystitis due to a floating gallbladder. KEYWORDS: Cholecystitis; Diabetes; Floating gallbladder; Torsion.     

Ultrasound and cholangiography for the diagnosis of biliary complications after orthotopic liver transplantation: A comparative study

The ability of ultrasound to detect biliary obstruction, bile leakage and generalized ductal changes after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) was compared to cholangiography. Cholangiography was considered to be the gold standard. Adequate opacification of the biliary tree was achieved in 139 cholangiograms. Biliary obstruction, intermediate or large bile leakage, and generalized ductal changes were diagnosed with cholangiography in 15% (21/139), 14% (20/139), and 16% (22/139), respectively. Normal ultrasound findings could not exclude biliary stricture, generalized ductal changes, or bile leakage, and fluid collections were not correlated with bile leakage. Abnormal ultrasound findings were highly predictive of the cholangiographic diagnosis of biliary obstruction or generalized ductal changes (specificity of 98% and 100%, respectively). An irregular appearance of the bile ducts and increased periductal echogenicity proved to be characteristic features for generalized ductal changes. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Possibilities of laparoscopic decompression of the gallbladder in middle-aged and elderly patients with diseases of the biliary tract]

It is established that laparoscopic cholecystostomy presents the most acceptable method of gall bladder decompression in acute cholecystitis patients of advanced age comprising a high-risk group for surgery. Cholecystostomy efficiency reaches 97.2%. In case the procedure is not feasible in acute cholecystitis patients with intrahepatic position of the gall bladder or perivesicular adhesions the preference should be given to transhepatic drainage of the gall bladder whose effectiveness is 88.5%. An expedient method of laparoscopic decompression of the biliary tracts in mechanical jaundice due to tumor obstruction of the terminal part of the common bile duct is the formation of an external biliary fistula and "continuous" direct drainage of the gall bladder warranting satisfactory results in 93.3 and 100% of cases, respectively. Patients with a 1.5-week history of mechanical jaundice are not recommended transhepatic drainage, in longer duration of the jaundice (more than 1 month) it becomes contraindicated.     

ACR Appropriateness Criteria ® acute onset of scrotal pain--without trauma, without antecedent mass

Men or boys, who present with acute scrotal pain without prior trauma or a known mass, most commonly suffer from torsion of the spermatic cord; epididymitis or epididymoorchitis; or torsion of the testicular appendages. Less common causes of pain include a strangulated hernia, segmental testicular infarction, or a previously undiagnosed testicular tumor. Ultrasound is the study of choice to distinguish these disorders; it has supplanted Tc-99 m scrotal scintigraphy for the diagnosis of spermatic cord torsion. MRI should be used in a problem solving role if the ultrasound examination is inconclusive. The ACR Appropriateness Criteria ? are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed every two years by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and review include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of a well-established consensus methodology (modified Delphi) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures by the panel. In those instances where evidence is lacking or not definitive, expert opinion may be used to recommend imaging or treatment.     

Tc-99m HMPAO labelled WBCs in the detection of occult sepsis in the intensive care unit

In a retrospective study involving 25 patients with occult sepsis in the ICU of Taichung Veterans General Hospital, the sensitivity and specificity of the new diagnostic method, Tc-99m HMPAO labelled white blood cells (WBCs) scan, were compared with other evaluating methods including clinical information, radiograph, ultrasound, bacterial culture, operative findings and pathological report. It was found that Tc-99m HMPAO labelled WBCs scans gave a sensitivity of 96.0%, a specificity of 84.4% and an overall accuracy of 87.3%, as well as the probable causes of false positive and false negative diagnoses were discussed. In conclusion, Tc-99m HMPAO labelled WBCs scans provide a reliable method for imaging of occult sepsis in the ICU.