In situ nasal absorption of midazolam in rats

Intranasal (i.n.) midazolam (MDZ) administrations may be used successfully for preoperative sedation, especially in young patients. However, clinicians have to use the commercial parenteral formulation, the low pH of which (3.3), necessary to solubilize MDZ (pK(a) 6.1), is probably responsible for the signs of local irritation frequently reported. As a starting point to design a formulation suitable for the nasal route, MDZ nasal absorption was investigated in rats. The effects of the MDZ solution concentration (10--100 microg/ml), osmolality (from less than 10 mOsm/kg up to 450 mOsm/kg) and pH (3.3--7.4) were studied using an in situ perfusion technique. MDZ was determined by reversed-phase HPLC in the circulating solution and results were expressed in clearance terms. MDZ absorption was independent of its concentration. The pH of the solutions was the key-parameter and only a pH above 4 allowed significant absorption. These results were consistent with a passive diffusion absorption of MDZ and partly followed the pH partition theory. In conclusion, satisfactory MDZ absorption should be expected with a formulation at a pH suitable for the nasal route in human (5.5--6.5).     

Mechanism of nasal absorption of drugs. III: Nasal absorption of leucine enkephalin

The nasal absorption of a model peptide, leucine enkephalin (LE), was studied in rats using an in situ technique in which 4 mL of perfusion solution was circulated. Leucine enkephalin (LE) was found to undergo hydrolysis to its major metabolite des-tyrosine leucine enkephalin (DTLE). The addition of 1% sodium glycocholate (SGC) to the perfusion solution resulted in an increase in the overall rate of disappearance of LE and a decrease in the rate of formation of DTLE. When LE was added to nasal washings (i.e., Ringer's buffer that was precirculated through the nasal cavity to extract enzymes), LE was found to form DTLE. When SGC or puromycin was added to the nasal washings prior to the addition of LE, the rate of conversion of LE to DTLE was significantly reduced, suggesting that these two agents can inhibit peptidase enzyme activity in the nasal cavity. Since the volume of the solution has been shown to influence the kinetics of absorption of drugs administered nasally, a new experimental technique, the in vivo-in situ technique, which utilizes small volumes of solution and simulates realistic use of nose drops, was employed to further examine the mechanism of absorption and hydrolysis of LE in rats. Leucine enkephalin (LE) dissolved in 100 microL of Ringer's buffer was placed in the isolated nasal cavities of rats. The disappearance of LE and the appearance of DTLE were followed by rinsing the nasal cavity with fresh buffer. Disappearance of LE was always accompanied by appearance of DTLE, and the fraction of LE converted to DTLE decreased as the concentration of LE increased, suggesting a saturable enzymatic process.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Nasal delivery of polypeptides I: nasal absorption of enkephalins in rats

The serum levels of two enkephalins after various routes of administration were compared in rats. The results indicated that serum levels of metkephamid after nasal administration were not significantly different than levels after intravenous injection. The oral administration of metkephamid resulted in undetectable serum levels. The effects of a promoter and variations in the peptide dose on nasal absorption were studied. Depending on the stability of the polypeptide and its susceptibility to enzymatic degradation, nasal absorption of peptides can be influenced by the presence of a promoting agent in the formulation. A linear relationship between the dose and the AUC was observed in the range of concentrations studied. The absorption mechanism appears to be passive diffusion. Microscopic examinations of nasal mucosa in rats revealed degrees of irritation which, considering the experimental exposure, were slight and probably repairable. The data indicate that enkephalins can be absorbed through the nasal mucosa into the systemic circulation, and the onset of absorption was rapid. Nasal administration may offer an attractive alternative for the delivery of proteins and/or polypeptides which are, in general, absorbed poorly when given orally.     

Aminated gelatin as a nasal absorption enhancer for peptide drugs: evaluation of absorption enhancing effect and nasal mucosa perturbation in rats

This study was carried out to evaluate the potential of aminated gelatin as a nasal absorption enhancer for peptide drugs. The absorption-enhancing effect was investigated in rats using insulin and fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran with a molecular weight of 4.4 kDa (FD-4) as model drugs. The absorption of insulin was estimated by measuring the changes in plasma glucose levels following intranasal administration, and that of FD-4 was determined by measuring its plasma concentration after dosing. The hypoglycaemic effect after intranasal administration of insulin with aminated gelatin significantly increased compared with that after intranasal administration of insulin in phosphate buffered saline, indicating that aminated gelatin effectively enhanced the nasal absorption of insulin. In contrast, neither kind of native gelatin (isoelectric point = 5.0 and 9.0) showed any absorption-enhancing effect. The pH of the formulations and the concentration of aminated gelatin were found to affect the hypoglycaemic effect. In addition, aminated gelatin at a concentration of 0.2% significantly enhanced the absorption and the efflux of FD-4 through the rat nasal mucosa. The possible perturbation of aminated gelatin to nasal mucosa was evaluated by measuring the leaching of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) using an in-situ perfusion rat model. Aminated gelatin presented a concentration-dependent (0.1-0.4%) but relatively small effect on the LDH leaching from the rat nasal epithelial membrane. These results suggest that positively charged aminated gelatin could be a new absorption enhancer for nasal delivery of peptide drugs.     

替米沙坦的大鼠肠吸收特性及联用药物对其吸收的影响

目的:研究替米沙坦在大鼠肠道的吸收情况及联用药物对其吸收的影响。方法:采用大鼠在体单向灌流法进行肠吸收实验,研究药物浓度、肠段及联用药物硝苯地平、尼莫地平、氨氯地平、卡维地洛和胺碘酮对替米沙坦肠吸收的影响。结果:替米沙坦在十二指肠、空肠、回肠、结肠段的吸收速率常数(Ka)和表观吸收系数(Papp)均无显著性统计学差异(P>0.05)。随着浓度的增高,替米沙坦的Ka和Papp值显著性增大。乙胺碘呋酮和硝苯地平对替米沙坦在空肠段的Papp和Ka存在显著性影响(P<0.05);但卡维地洛、尼莫地平和氨氯地平未见显著性影响(P>0.05)。结论:替米沙坦肠吸收机制可能以被动扩散为主,其转运过程可能受P-gp等外排泵的影响,且在全肠道吸收良好,无特定吸收部位。合并用药可能影响替米沙坦的肠吸收。     

Improved nasal absorption of drugs using poly-L-arginine: effects of concentration and molecular weight of poly-L-arginine on the nasal absorption of fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran in rats.

The effects of the concentration and molecular weight of poly-L-arginine (poly-L-Arg) on the in vivo nasal absorption of fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextran (MW, 4 kDa, FD-4) in rats were studied. When poly-L-Arg with a range of different molecular weights (MW, 8.9, 45.5 and 92.0 kDa) was applied intranasally at various concentrations, the bioavailability (F(0-9 h)) of FD-4 increased with the increasing concentration of poly-L-Arg. The enhanced absorption was also dependent on the molar concentration, in that the poly-L-Arg with a higher molecular weight increased F(0-9 h) at a lower molar concentration. In addition, for each applied concentration, the poly-L-Arg exhibited a molecular weight-dependence as far as the enhancement of FD-4 absorption was concerned. On the other hand, the maximum absorption rate (MAR) of FD-4, calculated by means of a deconvolution method, tended to reach a maximum plateau level at a lower applied concentration for the poly-L-Arg with the highest molecular weight, but this plateau level was almost the same for poly-L-Arg with molecular weights of 45.5 and 92.0 kDa. Moreover, the simulated absorption profiles of FD-4 indicate that the degree of enhancement (the level of MAR and the subsequent reduction in the absorption rate) was dependent on the molecular weight of poly-L-Arg, while the effect of poly-L-Arg was maintained for a longer period, depending on the applied concentration, although the MAR was relatively similar. These results indicate that the molecular weight of poly-L-Arg appears to affect both the enhancing efficiency (absorption rate) and the time-frame of this enhancing effect, whereas the concentrations of each poly-L-Arg system applied only have an effect on the time-frame. These effects may also be associated with the charge density of a poly-L-Arg molecule.     

Mechanism of nasal absorption of drugs. II: Absorption of L-tyrosine and the effect of structural modification on its absorption

The nasal absorption of L-tyrosine and the effect of structural modification on that absorption have been studied using an in-situ experimental technique. The extent of nasal absorption of the amino acid was found to be the same at pH values of 4.0 and 7.4 but dependent on concentration in the range of 2.8 X 10(-4)-2.2 X 10(-3) M. O-Acyl-L-tyrosine esters, although possessing higher octanol-water (pH 7.4) partition coefficients, have the same rate of nasal absorption as the parent amino acid. N-Acetyl-L-tyrosine, on the other hand, was found to have both partition coefficient and nasal absorption rate similar to those of L-tyrosine. Esterification of the carboxyl moiety of L-tyrosine results in derivatives that hydrolyze in the in-situ perfusion medium generating the original amino acid. The rate of nasal absorption of these derivatives was, therefore, determined from an overall disappearance rate which accounted for the rate of hydrolysis to L-tyrosine. These carboxylic esters were absorbed 4 to 10 times faster than L-tyrosine. Although the carboxylic esters of L-tyrosine possess higher octanol-water partition coefficients than the parent amino acid, the differences in the rates of nasal absorption could not be attributed solely to partition coefficient. The enhancement in the rate of absorption observed for these esters was attributed instead to the absence of the negative charge on the carboxylate moiety. It is a result of this negative charge that the rates of nasal absorption of L-tyrosine, O-acyl-L-tyrosine esters and N-acetyl-L-tyrosine are similar, despite significant differences in their partition coefficients.     

Percutaneous absorption of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs from in situ gelling xyloglucan formulations in rats

The potential of gels formed in situ by dilute aqueous solutions of a xyloglucan polysaccharide derived from tamarind seed as sustained release vehicles for percutaneous administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs has been assessed by in vitro and in vivo studies. Chilled aqueous solutions of xyloglucan that had been partially degraded by beta-galactosidase formed gels at concentrations of 1-2% w/w when warmed to 37 degrees C. The in vitro release of ibuprofen and ketoprofen at pH 7.4 from the enzyme degraded xyloglucan gels and the subsequent permeation of these fully ionized drugs through cellulose membranes followed root-time kinetics over a period of 12 h after an initial lag period. Diffusion coefficients were appreciably higher when the drugs were released from 1.5% w/w xyloglucan gels than when released from 25% w/w Pluronic F127 gels formed in situ under identical conditions. The difference in release rates was attributed to differences in the structure of the gels. The permeation rate of ibuprofen through excised skin was higher than that of ketoprofen when released from both gels, but of similar magnitude through cellulose membranes. Plasma concentrations of ibuprofen and ketoprofen from gels formed in situ following topical application of chilled aqueous solutions of xyloglucan and Pluronic F127 to the abdominal skin of rats were compared. The bioavailabilities of ibuprofen and ketoprofen were significantly higher when released from xyloglucan gels compared to Pluronic F127 gels. Occlusive dressing techniques had a greater enhancing effect on the bioavailability of ibuprofen when released from Pluronic gels.     

各种吸收促进剂对黄芩苷鼻腔吸收的影响

目的研究黄芩提取物中黄芩苷的鼻腔吸收规律和9种吸收促进剂对黄芩苷鼻腔吸收的促进作用,寻找有效的鼻腔吸收促进剂。方法采用大鼠在体鼻腔循环法考察黄芩苷鼻腔吸收,以鼻腔吸收的一级动力学常数来衡量各种吸收促进剂促吸收作用的强弱。结果黄芩苷鼻腔吸收需加入吸收促进剂,各种不同质量分数吸收促进剂的促进作用为:1%去氧胆酸钠0.5%壳聚糖≈0.5%冰片≈5%甲基化-β-环糊精>5%HP-β-CD>5%β-CD>1%Tween-80≈0.1%EDTA-Na2≈1%磷脂,其中加入最后三者的促吸收效果与不加吸收促进剂时无显著性差异。结论质量分数为1%去氧胆酸钠促吸收效果最好,但鼻黏膜毒性较大,0.5%壳聚糖、0.5%冰片、5%甲基化-β-环糊精和5%HP-β-CD可安全有效地促进黄芩苷的鼻腔吸收。     

Pulmonary absorption rate and bioavailability of drugs in vivo in rats: structure-absorption relationships and physicochemical profiling of inhaled drugs

The aim of this investigation was to analyze the structure-absorption relationships for pulmonary delivered drugs. First, the inhaled drugs on the market during 2001 were identified and a profile of the calculated physicochemical properties was made. Second, an in vivo pharmacokinetic investigation was performed in anesthetized rats. Eight selected drugs were administered by intratracheal nebulization and intravenous bolus administration and the plasma concentrations of the drugs were determined by LC-MS-MS. Third, an evaluation of the relationships between the absorption/bioavailability data and the drugs' physicochemical characteristics and the epithelial permeability in Caco-2 cells, respectively, was performed. The drug absorption rate was found to correlate to the molecular polar surface area and the hydrogen bonding potential, as well as to the apparent permeability in Caco-2 cell monolayers, which indicated that passive diffusion was the predominating mechanism of absorption in the rat lung. In contrast to the intestinal mucosa and the blood-brain barrier, the pulmonary epithelium was shown to be highly permeable to compounds with high molecular polar surface area (e.g., PSA 479 A(2)). Furthermore, a high bioavailability was found for the efflux transporter substrates talinolol (81%) and losartan (92%), which provides functional evidence for a quantitatively less important role for efflux transporters, such as P-glycoprotein, in limiting the absorption of these drugs from the rat lung. In conclusion, the pulmonary route should be regarded as a potential alternative for the delivery of drugs that are inadequately absorbed after oral administration.     

Systems approach to vaginal delivery of drugs I: development of in situ vaginal drug absorption procedure.

In the framework of the development of drug delivery systems for locally administered contraceptive drugs, a reliable method that can afford quantitative evaluation of drug absorption behavior was explored using the rabit doe. A system was constructed based upon perfusing the drug solution in the vaginal tract. For this purpose, a "rib-cage" type cell was constructed and surgically implanted in the rabbit prior to an experiment. The primary purpose of the present paper is to evaluate the method, including the surgical operation and the perfusion system. The absorption experiments were carried out using n-butanol-1minus 14C as the model solute to survey the reproducibility of the absorption behavior. Experiments were conducted with a number of rabbits on several successive days to determine the day-to-day and animal-to-animal variations. The drug disappearance in the reservoir followed first-order kinetics from which the apparent permeability coefficient was calculated. The results indicated that a set of experiments may be carried out on a single animal and that the method generally affords rather high precision.     

Effect of surfactants on the nasal absorption of insulin in rats

The nasal administration of insulin preparation to rats resulted in dose-dependent hypoglycemia. The absorption of insulin through the nasal mucosa was enhanced when a surfactant, among various non-ionic, anionic and amphoteric surfactants, including the bile acid salts, saponin and peptidelipid (surfactin), was added to the insulin solution. Among the non-ionic surfactants, the addition of an ether type having a HLB(hydrophile-lipophile balance) value from 8 to 14 was found to produce the highest promoting effect on the nasal absorption of insulin. The bioavailability of nasally administered insulin with the surfactant was estimated to be about 30% by comparing the hypoglycemic effect with that obtained after intravenous administration.     

壳聚糖载体对药物鼻腔吸收的促进作用

目的:研究伊文思蓝鼻腔给药壳聚糖载体的促吸收作用及其对鼻腔黏膜的毒性。方法:小鼠鼻腔给伊文思蓝的壳聚糖溶液后,采用荧光显微镜观察脑部伊文思蓝的分布;紫外法测定小鼠脑部其含量;通过鼻腔黏膜切片考察壳聚糖对大鼠鼻腔黏膜毒性。结果:壳聚糖对伊文思蓝经鼻吸收入脑具有促进作用,伊文思蓝在脑前、中、后部均有分布;壳聚糖载体对大鼠鼻黏膜毒性较小。结论:壳聚糖是水溶性药物经鼻吸收入脑的优良载体。     

Characterization of the oral absorption of several aminopenicillins: determination of intrinsic membrane absorption parameters in the rat intestine in situ

The absorption mechanism of several penicillins was characterized using in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion in the rat. The intrinsic membrane parameters were determined using a modified boundary layer model (fitted value +/- S.E.): Jmax* = 11.78 +/- 1.88 mM, Km = 15.80 +/- 2.92 mM, Pm* = 0, Pc* = 0.75 +/- 0.04 for ampicillin; Jmax* = 0.044 +/- 0.018 mM, Km = 0.058 +/- 0.026 mM, Pm* = 0.558 +/- 0.051, Pc* = 0.757 +/- 0.088 for amoxicillin; and Jmax* = 16.30 +/- 3.40 mM, Km = 14.00 +/- 3.30 mM, Pm* = 0, Pc* = 1.14 +/- 0.05 for cyclacillin. All of the aminopenicillins studied demonstrated saturable absorption kinetics as indicated by their concentration-dependent wall permeabilities. Inhibition studies were performed to confirm the existence of a nonpassive absorption mechanism. The intrinsic wall permeability (Pw*) of 0.01 mM ampicillin was significantly lowered by 1 mM amoxicillin and the Pw* of 0.01 mM amoxicillin was reduced by 2 mM cephradine consistent with competitive inhibition.     

Physicochemical, physiological, and mathematical considerations in optimizing percutaneous absorption of drugs

The percutaneous absorption or transdermal permeation of drugs has gained considerable prominence in recent years through the development of transdermal systemic delivery systems and the related interest in the design and use of topical products. The present review discusses the phenomenon of percutaneous absorption in drug delivery and its importance in regard to the anatomy of skin, its physiological function, and biomechanical properties, as well as the physicochemical properties of the skin and the drug. The mathematical relationships and models used to describe the phenomenon of percutaneous absorption are also reported. The importance of these factors in optimizing percutaneous absorption or transdermal permeation of drugs for local or systemic effect is also discussed.     

Effect of aminated gelatin on the nasal absorption of insulin in rats

Absorption enhancers, which increase the permeability of drugs through epithelial membranes without damaging them, are especially useful for intranasal administration of peptide drugs. In this study, aminated gelatins, candidate enhancers, having different numbers of amino groups were prepared from gelatin (H-gelatin, isoelectric point = 9.0, MW 100 kDa) and a partial gelatin hydrolysate (L-gelatin, isoelectric point = 8.0, MW 5 kDa), and the enhancing effects on the nasal absorption of insulin, used as a model peptide drug, and 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF), a paracellular marker, were examined in rats. The enhancing effect on insulin and CF depends on the MW and number of amino groups. A high correlation between the enhancing effects on insulin and CF was observed and this suggests that an increase in the paracellular permeability is the mechanism governing the nasal absorption-enhancement of aminated gelatins, at least as far as insulin and CF are concerned. The enhancing mechanism might be shared with other cationic polymers having absorption-enhancing effects.     

丹酚酸B大鼠在体肠吸收研究

目的:研究丹酚酸B在大鼠小肠的吸收情况.方法:采用在体单向灌流法进行小肠吸收实验,利用HPLC法测定灌流液中丹酚酸B的浓度.结果:丹酚酸B浓度为24.63μg·mL-1时,在十二指肠、空肠、回肠段的吸收速率常数(Ka)和表观吸收系数(Papp)无显著性差异(P＞0.05).与12.54μg·mL-1浓度比较,48.12μg·mL-1浓度时Sal B在空肠的Ka和Papp均显著降低[Ka:(2.13±0.50)×10-2vs(3.10±0.42)×10-2min-1,P＜0.05;Papp:(2.07±0.49)×10-3 vs(3.10±0.51)×10-3cm·min-1,P＜0.05].结论:丹酚酸B的小肠吸收存在高浓度饱和现象,且在全肠道吸收良好,且在小肠内无特定吸收部位,提示该药物适合制成日服2次的缓控释制剂.     

非布索坦的大鼠在体肠吸收动力学

目的:考察抗痛风新药非布索坦在大鼠肠道的吸收特性,为其口服制剂的设计与开发提供依据。方法:采用大鼠在体单向肠灌流实验模型,以超高效液相色谱(UPLC)法检测灌流液中药物浓度,研究非布索坦在大鼠十二指肠、空肠、回肠与结肠中的吸收情况,以及药物浓度对非布索坦吸收的影响。结果:非布索坦在大鼠十二指肠与结肠的吸收率(Ra),有效渗透系数(Peff)和肠渗透系数(Pw)均明显高于空肠与回肠(P<0.05)。非布索坦中浓度(10μmol.L-1)与高浓度(20μmol.L-1)的吸收参数无显著性差异(P>0.05),但均明显高于低浓度(5μmol.L-1)(P<0.05)。结论:非布索坦在各肠段的吸收均较好,在十二指肠与结肠的吸收速率明显高于回肠与空肠,其吸收有可能受到外排转运蛋白的影响。