Ganglion cysts of the posterior cruciate ligament

Ganglion cysts of the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) are uncommon lesions found incidentally on MRI and arthroscopy. Twenty patients (11 males and nine females) with the mean age of 35 years presenting with a variety of knee signs and symptoms were found to have PCL cysts on MRI. Out of these, thirteen patients (65%) had isolated symptomatic PCL cysts and seven patients had associated chondral and meniscal lesions. Eight out of the 20 patients (40%) gave a history of antecedent trauma. On arthroscopy, the majority of the cysts were situated at the midsubstance of the ligament with inter-cruciate distension and no involvement of the substance of the ligament. The content of the cysts varied with the majority having yellowish viscous fluid and three containing serous and bloody fluid. All cysts were successfully treated arthroscopically through standard anterior, posteromedial and posterolateral portals with no signs of recurrence on MRI at a mean followup of 24 months. PCL cysts may clinically mimic meniscal or chondral lesions and preoperatively, MRI is essential for the diagnosis of ganglion cysts arising from the PCL. Ganglion cysts of the PCL can be successfully treated arthroscopically using standard portals.     

Report of ganglion cyst in the anterior cruciate ligament of a 6-year-old child

BackgroundIntra-articular ganglion cysts of the knee are extremely rare within the pediatric population. To our knowledge, only seven case reports have been published in the medical literature identifying pediatric patients with intra-articular cysts of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). Intra-articular cysts of the knee are a rare cause of knee discomfort and mechanical symptoms such as locking of the knee. To our knowledge, up until now the youngest patient reported in the medical literature with an intra-articular ganglion cyst of the ACL was a 7-year-old boy.Case reportWe describe a 6-year-old boy who presented with a unilateral intra-articular ganglion cyst of the ACL in the right knee. In addition to the diagnostic work-up of radiographs and MRI, the cyst was successfully treated with arthroscopic resection and debridement to decompress the cyst.Clinical relevanceWe provide a review of the proposed pathogenesis, diagnostic modalities, differential diagnosis, treatment options, and complications of treatment for intra-articular cysts of the ACL.Level of evidenceLevel V, case report.     

Haemorrhagic synovial cyst of the posterior cruciate ligament: a case report

Cystic lesions arising in relation to the cruciate ligaments of the knee joint may become symptomatic and they can cause restriction of joint movement. We report here on a case of haemorrhagic synovial cyst arising from the posterior cruciate ligament with extension into the posterior compartment of the knee joint. We treated this lesion using the arthroscopic posterior-posterior triangulation technique. The histopathological findings of the synovial cyst were also verified. We would like to suggest that the posterior cruciate ligament synovial cyst should be considered in the differential diagnosis of cystic lesions that arise from the posterior compartment of the knee joint.     

MRI features of cystic lesions around the knee

Cystic lesions around the knee are a diverse group of entities, frequently encountered during routine MRI of the knee. These lesions range from benign cysts to complications of underlying diseases such as infection, arthritis, and malignancy. MRI is the technique of choice in characterizing lesions around the knee: to confirm the cystic nature of the lesion, to evaluate the anatomical relationship to the joint and surrounding tissues, and to identify associated intra-articular disorders. We will discuss the etiology, clinical presentation, MRI findings, and differential diagnosis of various cystic lesions around the knee including meniscal and popliteal (Baker's) cysts, intra-articular and extra-articular ganglia, intra-osseous cysts at the insertion of the cruciate ligaments and meniscotibial attachments, proximal tibiofibular joint cysts, degenerative cystic lesions (subchondral cyst), cystic lesions arising from the bursae (pes anserine, prepatellar, superficial and deep infrapatellar, iliotibial, tibial collateral ligament, and suprapatellar), and lesions that may mimic cysts around the knee including normal anatomical recesses. Clinicians must be aware about the MRI features and the differential diagnosis of cystic lesions around the knee to avoid misdiagnosis.     

膝关节前交叉韧带损伤的弥散张量成像观测

目的　为膝关节前交叉韧带损伤分度提供新的影像诊断依据。 方法　选取膝关节弥散张量成像扫描检查正常者100例和单侧前交叉韧带撕裂伤者100例,后者按照损伤程度分为Ⅰ~Ⅳ级,在工作站划分前交叉韧带损伤处及正常组相应部位感兴趣区,测量各向异性分数（fractional anisotropy,FA）和表观弥散系数（apparent diffusion coefficient,ADC）,生成纤维示踪图像。 结果　前交叉韧带损伤处与正常组相应部位的FA和ADC差异有统计学意义,损伤处的FA低于正常组,ADC高于正常组。前交叉韧带Ⅰ级、Ⅱ级、Ⅲ级、Ⅳ级损伤处的FA和ADC差异有统计学意义,FA随损伤程度增高而逐渐降低,与损伤程度呈负相关;ADC则逐渐增高,与损伤程度呈正相关。FA和ADC、纤维示踪成像及MRI诊断前交叉韧带损伤程度分级的灵敏度、特异度、准确度、阳性预测值及阴性预测值差异均有统计学意义,从高到低均依次为纤维示踪成像、FA和ADC、MRI。 结论　膝关节前交叉韧带损伤处的FA和ADC与损伤程度密切相关,纤维示踪成像可以提高损伤程度分级的准确率,弥散张量成像可以为前交叉韧带损伤分级提供更准确的影像诊断依据。     

Excision of a ganglion cyst from within the posterior septum of the knee--an arthroscopic technique

Ganglion formation within the posterior septum of the knee has not been reported in the literature. The anatomy of the posterior septum makes it inaccessible to routine arthroscopic examination because it is formed by the reflections of the synovium from the posterior cruciate ligament. We describe a technique whereby a ganglion within the posterior septum of the knee was excised successfully.     

Immunohistochemical analysis of the neural structures of the posterior cruciate ligament in osteoarthritis patients submitted to total knee arthroplasty: an analysis of thirty-four cases

OBJECTIVES:

Many authors recommend posterior cruciate ligament-retaining arthroplasty with the intention to maintain the proprioception properties of this ligament. Preservation of the neuroreceptors and nervous fibers may be essential for retaining the proprioception function of the posterior cruciate ligament. The present study was thus developed to evaluate the presence of neural structures in the posterior cruciate ligament resected during posterior stabilized arthroplasty in osteoarthritis patients. In particular, clinical, radiographic and histological parameters were correlated with the presence or absence of neural structures in the posterior cruciate ligament.

METHODS:

In total, 34 posterior cruciate ligament specimens were stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Gomori trichrome. An immunohistochemical analysis using antibodies against the S100 protein and neurofilaments was also performed. The presence of neural structures was correlated with parameters such as tibiofemoral angulation, histological degeneration of the posterior cruciate ligament, Ahlbäck radiological classification, age, gender and the histologic pattern of the synovial neurovascular bundle around the posterior cruciate ligament.

RESULTS:

In total, 67.5% of the cases presented neural structures in the posterior cruciate ligament. In 65% of the cases, the neurovascular bundle was degenerated. Nervous structures were more commonly detected in varus knees than in valgus knees (77% versus 50%). Additionally, severe histologic degeneration of the posterior cruciate ligament was related to neurovascular bundle degeneration.

CONCLUSIONS:

Severe posterior cruciate ligament degeneration was related to neurovascular bundle compromise. Neural structures were more commonly detected in varus knees. Intrinsic neural structures were detected in the majority of the posterior cruciate ligaments of patients submitted to knee arthroplasty for osteoarthritis.     

高频超声在膝关节后交叉韧带损伤的诊断价值

目的 评价高频超声对膝关节后交叉韧带损伤的诊断价值。方法 采用6．4-10．3MHz高频宽带线阵探头，对13例临床拟诊后交叉韧带损伤患者术前行超声检查，并与关节镜手术结果做时照。结果 超声诊断符合有10例，假阳性3例。诊断准确率为76．9％。结论 高频超声能够较准确对膝后交叉韧带损伤进行诊断，具有一定的临床诊断价值。     

扩髓髓内钉联合交叉韧带重建治疗股骨干骨折不愈合的临床研究

目的　观察扩髓髓内钉联合交叉韧带重建治疗膝关节不稳型（合并交叉韧带损伤）股骨干骨折不愈合的临床疗效。 方法　对10例合并交叉韧带损伤的股骨干骨折不愈合病例的临床研究,探讨分析膝关节稳定性对股骨干骨折愈合的影响,采用“原内固定取出+扩髓髓内钉重新固定股骨干+膝关节交叉韧带重建”的方法,治疗膝关节不稳型股骨干骨折不愈合。 结果　10例患者均得到随访,股骨干骨折愈合率100%,Tohner-Wrnch标准评定优,膝关节功能Lysholm评分优良率100% 。 结论　膝关节不稳是股骨干骨折不愈合的一个重要因素;对股骨干骨折的治疗必须考虑是否合并膝关节不稳;“原内固定取出+扩髓髓内钉重新固定股骨干+膝关节交叉韧带重建”的治疗方法对合并交叉韧带损伤的股骨干骨折不愈合的临床疗效确切。     

Chronic multiple knee ligament injuries: epidemiological analysis of more than one hundred cases

INTRODUCTION: Diagnosis and treatment of multiple ligament injuries of the knee remain a real challenge for most surgeons. OBJECTIVE: To find out the epidemiological profile of patients surgically treated at a Reference Service with more than one chronic ligament injury in the knee joint. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Of a total of 978 operated patients, 109 presented at least two associated ligament injuries in the same knee. Demographic and clinical variables were evaluated. RESULTS: The anterior cruciate ligament group presented a larger number of cases of ligament injuries related with sports practice and falls, while the posterior cruciate ligament and anterior cruciate ligament + posterior cruciate ligament groups presented more cases related to traffic accidents and trauma with object (weight on the knee) (p<0.001). The varus group presented significantly higher values of time since injury (p<0.01). In the group with new anterior cruciate ligament injury (neoligament) associated with other ligament injuries the disruption times were higher, showing statistical significance (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Anterior cruciate ligament injury associated with other ligament injuries other than posterior cruciate ligament injury are related to sports practice and falls. Posterior cruciate ligament injury associated to other ligament injuries, including or not anterior cruciate ligament injury, are related to traffic accidents and direct trauma caused by an object on the knee. Significant delay between primary ligament injuries and their reconstructions generates varus deformity of the affected knee. In spite of the large delay in seeking medical treatment, few patients with neoligament anterior cruciate ligament injury and other combined disruptions will develop varus deformity.     

Cruciate ligament rupture in young adult broiler knee joints

Derangement of the caudal cruciate ligament was identified in 11 broiler fowls aged between 18 and 38 weeks. In some cases, the caudal cruciate ligament alone was ruptured, whereas, in others, the caudal meniscofemoral and meniscotibial ligaments and medial meniscus were also deranged. In some birds, ligaments were only partially ruptured but, in 5 cases, complete rupture had occurred in both knee joints. All birds showed severe lameness which, in 2 cases, could only be ascribed to caudal cruciate derangement. Degenerative changes were present in many of the ligaments which suggested that rupture may be a consequence of primary ligamentous change. Proximal tibiotarsal osteochondrosis was a frequent concomitant finding which may affect the integrity of the ligament attachment. A number of other factors including postural abnormality, obesity, and relative inactivity may predispose broilers to caudal cruciate ligament rupture.     

关节镜下自体腘绳肌和异体胫前肌单束重建前交叉韧带的1年随访比较

背景：由于人工韧带存在慢性疲劳,越来越多的人采用异体肌腱重建前后交叉韧带损伤。 目的：比较关节镜下自体腘绳肌和异体胫前肌单束重建前交叉韧带的疗效。 方法：收集关节镜下用自体腘绳肌和异体胫前肌单束重建前交叉韧带随访满1年的病例。自体腘绳肌重建前交叉韧带组28例;异体胫前肌重建前交叉韧带组18例。采用股骨端Endobutten、胫骨端可吸收螺钉固定。采用支具固定并进行功能训练。 结果与结论：前交叉韧带重建后6个月,异体肌腱组lysholm评分高于自体肌腱组(P < 0.05);重建后12个月两组lysholm评分差异无显著性意义。两组重建后6,12个月与重建前比较差异均有显著性意义(P < 0.05),重建后12个月与6个月比较差异有显著性意义(P < 0.05)。结果表明,自体和异体肌腱重建前交叉韧带随访1年疗效相当。     

Patterns of intraneural ganglion cyst descent

On the basis of the principles of the unifying articular theory, predictable patterns of proximal ascent have been described for fibular (peroneal) and tibial intraneural ganglion cysts in the knee region. The mechanism underlying distal descent into the terminal branches of the fibular and tibial nerves has not been previously elucidated. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate if and when cyst descent distal to the articular branch-joint connection occurs in intraneural ganglion cysts to understand directionality of intraneural cyst propagation. In Part I, the clinical records and MRIs of 20 consecutive patients treated at our institution for intraneural ganglion cysts (18 fibular and two tibial) arising from the superior tibiofibular joint were retrospectively analyzed. These patients underwent cyst decompression and disconnection of the articular branch. Five of these patients developed symptomatic cyst recurrence after cyst decompression without articular branch disconnection which was done elsewhere prior to our intervention. In Part II, five additional patients with intraneural ganglion cysts (three fibular and two tibial) treated at other institutions without disconnection of the articular branch were compared. These patients in Parts I and II demonstrated ascent of intraneural cyst to differing degrees (12 had evidence of sciatic nerve cross-over). In addition, all of these patients demonstrated previously unrecognized MRI evidence of intraneural cyst extending distally below the level of the articular branch to the joint of origin: cyst within the proximal most portions of the deep fibular and superficial fibular branches in fibular intraneural ganglion cysts and descending tibial branches in tibial intraneural ganglion cysts. The patients in Part I had complete resolution of their cysts at follow-up MRI examination 1 year postoperatively. The patients in Part II had intraneural recurrences postoperatively within the articular branch, the parent nerve, and the terminal branches, although in three cases they were subclinical. The authors demonstrate that cyst descent distal to the take-off of the articular branch to the joint of origin occurs regularly in patients with fibular and tibial intraneural ganglion cysts. The authors believe that parent terminal branch descent follows ascent up the articular branch from an affected joint of origin. This mechanism for bidirectional flow explains cyst within terminal branches of the fibular and tibial nerves and is dependent on pressure fluxes and resistances. This new pattern is consistent with principles previously described in a unified (articular) theory, is generalizable to other intraneural ganglion cysts arising from joints, and has important implications for pathogenesis and treatment of these intraneural cysts.     

Permeation from the synovial fluid as nutritional pathway for the anterior cruciate ligament in rabbits

The anterior cruciate ligament of the knee receives its nutrition from a direct vascular supply and by permeation of nutrients from synovial fluid. In order to quantitate the relative importance of these two routes and to compare the anterior cruciate ligament with the medial collateral ligament, we injected [³H]methyl-glucose as a tracer intravenously or directly into the knee in rabbits. Tracer concentrations in plasma, synovial fluid, the anterior cruciate ligament and the medial collateral ligament were analysed by a pharmacokinetic compartment model developed for this study. The contribution of [³H]methyl-glucose permeation from the synovial fluid was calculated at 59.7% in the anterior cruciate ligament and at 18.1% in the medial collateral ligament. We concluded from these results that the nutrition for the medial collateral ligament, which is an extraarticular structure, is provided mainly by its vascular supply. In contrast, synovial fluid permeation is an important transport route for small molecules for the normal anterior cruciate ligament.     

关节镜下自体肌腱及同种异体肌腱重建膝关节前后交叉韧带

背景：自体肌腱移植重建膝关节前后交叉韧带已广泛应用,但是供区容易出现并发症,同种异体肌腱移植越来越多应用于重建膝关节前后交叉韧带,是一种重要的替代材料。 目的：比较关节镜下自体肌腱及同种异体肌腱移植重建膝关节前后交叉韧带的临床疗效差异。 方法：40 例前后交叉韧带损伤患者分为2组：自体肌腱组为自体半腱肌及股薄肌重建膝关节前后交叉韧带,异体肌腱组为应用由山西骨组织库提供的同种异体肌腱重建膝关节前后交叉韧带。 结果与结论：全部病例均获得6个月以上随访,最长随访时间36个月。重建前后两组大腿周径患健侧差值、Lachman 试验、中立位前抽屉试验(ADT)和国际膝关节评分委员会(IKDC)、Lysholm 及Tegner 评分差异均有显著性意义(P < 0.01),两组间术后各项指标差异均无显著性意义(P > 0.05)。结果表明,自体肌腱与单纯深低温冷冻同种异体肌腱移植在重建膝关节前后交叉韧带疗效无明显差异。     

自体肌腱移植修复前交叉韧带合并后外侧角损伤

背景：自体半腱和股薄肌腱移植均可重建交叉韧带和膝关节后外侧角。 目的：分析自体半腱和股薄肌腱移植修复膝关节前交叉韧带合并后外侧角损伤的效果。 方法：将20例膝关节前交叉韧带合并后外侧角损伤患者随机分成两组：实验组在关节镜辅助下应用自体半腱肌、股薄肌一期重建前交叉韧带和加强重建后外侧角韧带;对照组仅采用自体组半腱肌、股薄肌一期重建前交叉韧带。  结果与结论：两组术后Lysom评分较术前明显改善(P < 0.01)。实验组患者在站立、行走和上下楼梯时无与膝关节后外侧不稳相关的过伸位膝关节不稳感,未发现行走时膝关节内甩;关节活动度屈曲100°~135°,伸直0°~10°。对照组中3例在站立,行走和上下楼梯时无与膝关节后外侧不稳相关的过伸位膝关节不稳感,4例行走时出现轻微膝关节内甩;关节活动度屈曲104°~130°,伸直0°~10°。说明用自体肌腱移植重建膝关节前交叉韧带和后外侧结构损伤,能够恢复膝关节后外侧与前后方的稳定性,较单纯重建前交叉韧带效果好。     

共培养下后交叉韧带成纤维细胞中赖氨酰氧化酶的基因表达

背景：后交叉韧带对人膝关节结构的稳定以及功能的发挥起着重要作用。与内侧副韧带相比,损伤后的后交叉韧带难以很好的自我愈合,甚至会导致半月板撕裂和软骨损伤。为了提高后交叉韧带的愈合能力,这就需要寻找新的途径来再生和修复损伤的后交叉韧带。近年来的研究表明,赖氨酰氧化酶在组织损伤修复过程中起到非常重要的作用,但其在后交叉韧带修复过程中的分子机制研究尚未涉猎。 目的：观察与滑膜细胞共培养后交叉韧带成纤维细胞中赖氨酰氧化酶基因的表达。 方法：将第4代的后交叉韧带成纤维细胞和滑膜细胞分别种植于6孔板和Tanswell中。实验分为2组,即后交叉韧带成纤维细胞与滑膜细胞共培养组和后交叉韧带成纤维细胞单层培养组。培养6 h后,提取总RNA,通过半定量PCR和实时定量PCR检测单层培养组和共培养组中后交叉韧带成纤维细胞中赖氨酰氧化酶基因表达。 结果与结论：与单层培养组相比,赖氨酰氧化酶、赖氨酰氧化酶样蛋白1、赖氨酰氧化酶样蛋白2、赖氨酰氧化酶样蛋白3和赖氨酰氧化酶样蛋白4的基因表达在共培养的后交叉韧带细胞中都明显升高,分别增加了1.1,1.4,1.1,1.3,1.1倍(P < 0.05)。单层培养组家族成员在单层培养和共培养中表达情况的差异性,说明细胞之间的相互作用会影响后交叉韧带组织的损伤修复,对后交叉韧带损伤修复的机制研究有极其重要的参考价值。     

关节镜下空心螺钉固定ACL胫骨止点撕脱骨折

目的观察关节镜下空心螺钉固定ACL胫骨止点撕脱骨折的临床效果。方法 2010年2月~2011年3月,关节镜下空心螺钉固定ACL胫骨止点撕脱骨折13例,在关节镜下复位骨折块,空心螺钉固定骨折块。通过1年以上随访行疗效评定。患者膝关节功能以Lysholm评分系统评分。结果全部病例获完整随访,平均随访16m(12~25m)。Lysholm膝关节功能评分:术前23~65分,平均(48.45±5.23)分;术后83~96分,平均(91.34±6.53)分。优11例,良1例,中1例,优良率92.3%。结论关节镜下空心螺钉固定ACL胫骨止点撕脱骨折创伤小、恢复快,是一种可行的方法。     

Cross-over: a generalizable phenomenon necessary for secondary intraneural ganglion cyst formation

The appearances of intraneural ganglion cysts are being elucidated. We previously introduced the cross-over phenomenon to explain how a fibular (peroneal) or tibial intraneural ganglion cyst arising from the superior tibiofibular joint could give rise to multiple cysts: cyst fluid ascending up the primarily affected nerve could reach the level of the sciatic nerve, fill its common epineurial sheath and spread circumferentially (cross over), at which time pressure fluxes could result in further ascent up the sciatic or descent down the same parent nerve or the opposite, previously unaffected fibular or tibial nerves. In this study, we hypothesized that cross-over could occur in other nerves, potentially leading to the formation of more than one intraneural ganglion cyst in such situations. We analyzed the literature and identified a single case that we could review where proximal extension of an intraneural ganglion cyst involving a nerve at a different site could theoretically undergo cross-over in another major nerve large enough for available magnetic resonance images to resolve this finding. A case of a suprascapular intraneural ganglion cyst previously reported by our group that arose from the glenohumeral joint and extended to the neck was reanalyzed for the presence or absence of cross-over. An injection of dye into the outer epineurium of the suprascapular nerve in a fresh cadaveric specimen was performed to test for cross-over experimentally. Retrospective review of this case of suprascapular intraneural ganglion cyst demonstrated evidence to support previously unrecognized cross-over at the level of the upper trunk, with predominant ascent up the C5 and the C6 nerve roots and subtle descent down the anterior and posterior divisions of the upper trunk as well as the proximal portion of the suprascapular nerve. This appearance gave rise to multiple interconnected intraneural ganglion cysts arising from a single distant connection to the glenohumeral joint. The injection study also demonstrated the cross-over phenomenon and produced a similar pattern as the cyst dissection. This article illustrates that cross-over can occur in another nerve (apart from the prototype fibular nerve). Furthermore, understanding the more complex anatomic nature of the upper trunk cross-over model provides insight into important mechanistic information regarding the bidirectional propagation patterns and formation of primary and secondary intraneural ganglion cysts not afforded by the previously described sciatic nerve cross-over model.     

股直肌腱中1/3与前交叉韧带的生物力学比较

背景：股直肌腱已成为重建前交叉韧带的重要替代物。 目的：比较股直肌腱中1/3和前交叉韧带的生物力学特性。 方法：标本于死者死亡后9.0~10.0 h解剖取下股直肌腱和前交叉韧带,取下后立刻用以生理盐水浸湿的纱布包裹,密封后置于-20 ℃冰箱内保存。实验前取出标本,切取试样,股直肌腱和前交叉韧带每组共10个试样。 结果与结论：股直肌腱中1/3的单位模量是前交叉韧带的63%,单位最大载荷为63%,提示股直肌腱中1/3是适合作为交叉韧带重建物的。