Evolution of the Achilles tendon: The athlete's Achilles heel?

The Achilles tendon is believed to have first developed two million years ago enabling humans to run twice as fast. However if the Achilles tendon is so important in terms of evolution, then why is this tendon so prone to injury – especially for those more active like athletes. The Achilles tendon had an integral role in evolving apes from a herbivorous diet to early humans who started hunting for food over longer distances, resulting in bipedal locomotion. Evolutionary advantages of the Achilles tendon includes it being the strongest tendon in the body, having an energy-saving mechanism for fast locomotion, allows humans to jump and run, and additionally is a spring and shock absorber during gait. Considering these benefits it is therefore not surprising that studies have shown athletes have thicker Achilles tendons than subjects who are less active. However, contradictory to these findings that show the importance of the Achilles tendon for athletes, it is well known that obtaining an Achilles tendon injury for an athlete can be career-altering. A disadvantage of the Achilles tendon is that the aetiology of its pathology is complicated. Achilles tendon ruptures are believed to be caused by overloading the tensed tendon, like during sports. However studies have also shown athlete Achilles tendon ruptures to have degenerative changes in the tendon. Other flaws of the Achilles tendon are its non-uniform vascularity and incomplete repair system which may suggest the Achilles tendon is on the edge of evolution. Research has shown that there is a genetic influence on the predisposition a person has towards Achilles tendon injuries. So if this tendon is here to stay in our anatomy, and it probably is due to the slow rate of evolution in humans, research in genetic modification could be used to decrease athletes’ predisposition to Achilles tendinopathy.     

Achilles tendon rupture: a case report and discussion of conservative versus surgical repair

The authors review the literature on Achilles tendon ruptures and discuss the conservative and surgical approaches to treatment of acute ruptures. A case history of acute Achilles tendon rupture is presented, including clinical signs not previously described. The primary complication of Achilles tendon rupture is the high incidence of rerupture after conservative therapy. The authors note that complications after surgical repair of an Achilles tendon rupture may be avoided by a surgeon skilled in the performance of this procedure and by the use of an appropriate surgical drain. The authors conclude that primary surgical repair is the treatment of choice for acute Achilles tendon ruptures.     

Bilateral spontaneous rupture of Achilles tendons: a case report

Spontaneous bilateral rupture of Achilles tendon is rare. Rupture of the Achilles tendon has been described in patients on oral corticosteroid therapy. The sudden dorsiflexion of the plantar-flexed foot is the usual mechanism of injury. Spontaneous bilateral rupture is common in the degenerated tendon, which is often seen in patients with long-term corticosteroid therapy. This case is unusual because the patient has never taken steroids. We discuss the mechanism of injury and other probable causes.     

跟腱损伤修复术后局部软组织缺损的处理

目的探讨跟腱损伤修复后局部软组织坏死致跟腱外露的处理方法。方法1996年4月-2006年4月,共收治24例跟腱修复术后因局部软组织坏死致跟腱外露的患者。其中男17例,女7例;年龄16-59岁。损伤原因开放性损伤8例,其中机器绞伤2例,重物砸伤3例,车轮绞伤3例;闭合性损伤16例,均为运动损伤。单纯行皮神经营养血管修复软组织缺损11例,其中腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣移位修复8例,隐神经营养血管皮瓣移位修复3例;跟腱修复加上述皮神经营养血管皮瓣移位修复软组织缺损13例。伤后至本次手术时间为9-76d,跟腱外露至本次手术修复的时间为3-65d。结果术后所有移位皮瓣均成活良好,质地好,外露跟腱被覆盖。其中4例皮瓣边缘少许黄色分泌物经2-3周换药后痊愈,6例行二期皮瓣修薄术。18例获6-24个月随访,皮瓣无破溃,不影响穿鞋,两点辨别觉为12-20mm。踝关节功能按AOFAS（美国足踝外科协会）标准评分,优8例,良6例,可3例,差1例,优良率为77.8%。13例提踵功能良好,3例能完成提踵功能,力量较健侧差,2例不能提踵。结论跟腱损伤修复术,若处理不当,易导致局部软组织坏死,跟腱外露。应尽早视情况行单纯皮神经营养血管皮瓣移位修复,或跟腱修复加皮神经营养血管皮瓣移位术。软组织修复及跟腱修复应力争同期进行。     

应用同种异体肌腱移植修复陈旧性跟腱断裂

目的探讨应用同种异体肌腱移植修复陈旧性跟腱断裂的手术方法. 方法 1996年7月～2000年11月,对6例陈旧性跟腱断裂患者行经过深低温处理的同种异体屈指肌腱移植.在跟腱近、远断端间立体双8字交叉移植进行修复,恢复跟腱断端的连续性和强度. 结果术后6例中有5例获2年以上随访,时间27～53个月.5例切口Ⅰ期愈合,1例切口皮缘坏死,经换药愈合.采用Arner-Lindholm疗效评定方法评估获随访的5例术后功能,优1例,良4例. 结论异体肌腱移植修复陈旧性跟腱断裂,可避免自体取材造成的损伤及可能引起的并发症,供材可提前制作,缩短了手术时间,是一种可行的手术方法.     

Unrecognized Pediatric Partial Achilles Tendon Injury Followed by Traumatic Completion: A Case Report and Literature Review

Achilles tendon ruptures are a relatively common athletic injury but are exceedingly rare in the pediatric population. We describe the case of a 10-year-old ice hockey player who experienced an Achilles tendon injury from a laceration to the posterior leg from a skate blade that led to a partial tendon laceration. This tendon injury was initially unrecognized despite an emergency department evaluation. The patient continued to complain of weakness and paresthesia after the skin laceration had healed. A traumatic dorsiflexion injury while running several weeks later led to a traumatic complete tendon rupture. The clinical, operative, and physical therapy records were reviewed to complete the history, treatment, and rehabilitation progress. The initial laceration injury had occurred 6 weeks before presentation, and the traumatic dorsiflexion injury had occurred 2 days before referral to an acute orthopedics clinic. Open repair was performed several days after the traumatic completion of the laceration, and the patient was immobilized in a cast for 5 weeks. The patient had weaned off crutches by 10 weeks postoperatively and had returned to some activities and light skating at 5.5 months. A full return to running and ice hockey had been achieved by 8 months postoperatively. The optimal repair for this injury has not been well established in published studies. We have concluded that laceration injuries have the potential to mask tendon injuries and that prolonged symptoms after a laceration should suggest occult pathologic features. Open tendon repair is a viable treatment option in the pediatric patient with Achilles tendon ruptures. A return to activities within a reasonable period can be expected with robust physical therapy.     

Traumatische Ruptur der Triceps-brachii-Sehne sowie der ipsilateralen Achillessehne

We report on a 71-year-old male farmer who sustained an injury to the tendons of the triceps brachii and the Achilles tendon on the left side. The diagnosis was based on clinical investigations and ultrasound. The triceps brachii tendon was repaired with open transosseous sutures. Six weeks after the operation we only allowed passive mobilization. The Achilles tendon rupture was treated with a semi-open procedure. Four weeks after the operation the ankle was fixed in 30 degrees plantar flexion, followed by 2 weeks in neutral position. Full weight bearing was allowed. Six months after the operation the patient no longer had any problems with his injury.Injuries of the tendon of the triceps brachii are very rare, with an incidence of 0.8%. We could not find case reports of a simultaneous injury to another tendon in the literature.     

A lipoma within the Achilles tendon sheath

We report a case demonstrating a rare finding associated with a relatively common injury. Lipomata are rarely found within tendon sheaths; but in the case of our patient, at the time of operative repair for a ruptured Achilles tendon, we found a fatty growth within the tendon sheath. The diagnosis of a lipoma was confirmed by histology. Although uncommon, it remains important to be aware of the existence of neoplastic growths within tendon sheaths and to establish the exact nature of these growths by histological analysis.     

Ossification of a ruptured achilles tendon: a case report in a diabetic patient.

Ossification of the Achilles tendon is a rare condition to be distinguished from the more frequently occurring tendon calcification. Achilles tendon ossification is more common in males and is usually associated with prior surgery or trauma to the tendon. A case history of a ruptured ossified Achilles tendon in an elderly diabetic female is presented. Although Achilles tendon rupture with subsequent ossification and fracture of the ossified Achilles tendon have been reported individually, there is evidence to suggest that this patient may have both ruptured and fractured an ossified Achilles tendon.     

Stretching for prevention of Achilles tendon injuries: a review of the literature

Professional and recreational athletes commonly perform pre-exercise stretching to prevent musculoskeletal injuries. Little definitive evidence exists that clearly demonstrates the efficacy of stretching in reducing injury. Achilles tendon injuries are among the most common injuries affecting active individuals in the United States today. Clinicians commonly recommend stretching the Achilles tendon without concrete scientific evidence to support such a claim. Few studies have addressed the effect of stretching in Achilles tendon injuries, and it is unclear if the conclusions made for musculoskeletal injuries can be applied to the Achilles tendon. Biomechanical studies of the Achilles tendon and measurements of the tendon's reflex activity have demonstrated possible mechanisms for the potential benefit of stretching, including load-induced hypertrophy and increased tendon tensile strength. Recent prospective studies have contended that reductions in plantarflexor strength and increases in ankle dorsiflexion range of motion from stretching the Achilles tendon may increase the risk of injury. Studies examining stretching in injury prevention, the biomechanical properties of injuries to the Achilles tendon were compiled and reviewed. Although many theories have been published regarding the potential benefits and limitations of stretching, few studies have been able to definitively demonstrate its utility in injury prevention.     

跟腱损伤治疗进展

目的介绍跟睫的解剖、损伤的病因、治疗策略及有关的最新进展。方法查阅国内外近年有关文献，并作综合分析。结果皮质类固醇对肌腱的影响仍存在争议，应用喹诺酮类药物治疗可能和肌腱疾病的发生有关。急性跟腱断裂治疗分为开放手术修复、经皮手术和非手术治疗。结论陈旧性跟腱断裂治疗及跟腱缺损的修复手术方式多种多样。多种生长因子的发现为跟腱损伤的治疗提供了新的途径。     

Achilles tendon rupture associated with ankle fracture

The case of a 40-year-old man who sustained a medial malleolar fracture with extension of the fracture into the tibial plafond is discussed. Before surgery, the physical examination revealed an Achilles tendon rupture. Surgical treatment to repair the bone and tendon injury was performed. Achilles tendon rupture is not an uncommon injury, but it is rarely associated with a fracture. When a fracture is present, the Achilles tendon injury can be overlooked, which may result in a delay of treatment or residual morbidity.     

Achillessehnenruptur

Achilles tendon ruptures are part of a continuum starting with the healthy Achilles tendon, including the thickened and painful tendinopathic Achilles tendon with neovascularization, and extending to complete tendon rupture. Often times chinolone antibiotics, cortisone therapy and valgus foot axis are associated risk factors. The incidence of Achilles tendon ruptures is estimated to be 10/100 000 per year with a mean age of 35–40 years. Physical activity is encountered in 75% cases of Achilles tendon ruptures. Running is associated with Achilles tendinopathy as the predominant overuse injury. Physical examination must include the calf squeeze test, followed by dynamic ultrasound examination: if an adaptation of the tendon's stump up to 20° ankle flexion is achieved and a patient is highly compliant, early functional conservative treatment in Achilles tendon ruptures can be performed. In almost all other patients percutaneous Achilles tendon repair is indicated, where nervus suralis lesions have to be appreciated. The vulnerable zone is 10–12 cm proximal to the calcaneus at the lateral border of the Achilles tendon with the sural nerve in close proximity to the tendon. As casts are not indicated anymore, early functional rehabilitation leads to improvement and should therefore be advocated.     

Post-traumatic ossification of the Achilles tendon: description of a case

The presence of small areas of ossification in the Achilles tendon is a relatively frequent finding. It is instead rare to find large, extensive ossifications for more than half of the tendon. The authors describe a case of a man aged 45 years who, in the wake of an unknown lesion of the Achilles tendon, developed clinically symptomatic ossification 9.5 cm in length and 2.3 cm in width. The patient was treated surgically by removal of the ossified portion and repair of the diastasis with a proximal Achilles flap. After 17 months, the patient is asymptomatic, there are no disorders in walking, and he exclusively shows moderate limitation in range of movement of the ankle joint associated with tricipital hyposthenia. Bone metaplasia of the Achilles tendon is a rare event, that can follow trauma or surgery. The size of the area to be removed implies considerable difficulty in repair of the continuity and in recovery of the length of the tendon.     

Aseptic drainage associated with polyglactine sutures used for repair of Achilles tendon ruptures

The aim of surgical treatment of Achilles tendon ruptures is to restore stability of the tendon. Various suture techniques and materials can be used for this purpose. Suture materials may be polyfilament or monofilament, absorbable or nonabsorbable. We presented four patients who developed severe chronic discharges associated with thick polyglactine (Vicryl) used during open repair of acute Achilles tendon ruptures. Surgical removal of suture materials and debridement resulted in complete improvement without any complications. The use of thick suture materials and large knots should be avoided in the repair of Achilles tendon ruptures. Polyfilament and absorbable sutures may pose problems due to their tendency to cause bacterial colonization and tissue rejection.     

Bilateral simultaneous achilles tendon ruptures. A case report and review of the literature

Bilateral simultaneous Achilles tendon ruptures are rare, with only ten cases reported in the English literature. Our case is that of a 44-year-old woman, along with a review of the literature. Affected persons usually are on chronic steroid treatment and in the fifth to seventh decades of life. The patient may have concomitant systemic disease, and the injury occurs with relatively mild trauma. The goals of treatment are mainly preventative, i.e., cessation of steroids as soon as possible and protective bracing of the remaining intact Achilles tendon.     

Neglected Achilles tendon rupture with central insertional plantaris tendon hypertrophy: two cases

A neglected Achilles tendon rupture is often characterized by muscle weakness and an overlengthened repair by scar tissue. Reconstructive surgery is usually performed taking into account the patient’s required level of function. Two surgical cases of neglected Achilles tendon rupture are presented in this article. In both instances it was expected that central fibrosis, possibly after neglected tendon rupture, would be found. However, after longitudinal opening of the tendons, a thickened plantaris tendon was evident at the insertion on the calcaneus in both cases. This hypertrophic tendon occupied most of the diameter of the Achilles tendon. Due to partial or complete rupture of the Achilles tendon, there was notable weakening and tendon transfer-augmentation was performed. A thickened plantaris tendon as a reaction to a neglected rupture of the Achilles tendon is a rare presentation. It can be detected preoperatively by MRI and subsequently preoperative planning can be optimized.     

Operative Versorgung von Achillessehnenverletzungen

Rupture of the Achilles tendon is typically associated with sportive activities with increasing tendency; it occurs most commonly in the third to fourth decade of life with a male-to-female ratio of 5–10:1. Ruptures are caused predominantly by a sudden, unexpected overextension of the tendon while direct trauma is less frequent. The recommended treatment of the injury remains controversial. In Germany, due to the good functional results, the open surgical repair represents the standard therapy since many years. The open suture technique offers the advantage of a lower re-rupture rate but is associated with the risk of wound-related complications including infection. By percutaneous suture techniques a significant decrease in the rate of infections and complications in wound healing could be achieved by minimal-access with reduced soft tissue trauma; on the other hand an increased rate of lesions of the sural nerve is reported. Dynamic imaging assessment of ultrasound or MRI allows a more accurate localisation of the ruptured ends of the tendons which is the prerequisite for the non-operative primary functional treatment of Achilles tendon ruptures. This conservative treatment regime is recommended when adaptation of the ends of the ruptured tendon is possible in 20° plantar flexion of the foot. Moreover, the desired level of daily activity and the patients’ degree of compliance has to be considered. Operative management should be avoided in the elderly patient or patients with risk factors like immunosuppressive therapy, diabetes mellitus, steroid use or failure to comply.     

Achillessehnenrupturen

In the current literature the incidence of ruptures of the Achilles tendon is reported to be 12–18/100,000. The Achilles tendon transfers the force of the m. triceps surae to the ankle joints, conducting plantar flexion and supination. Therefore injuries to this tendon usually involve a severe loss of function of the lower limb. The main reasons for this type of injury are usually degenerative changes of the tendon promoted by particular vascular supply and fibre orientation. Acute Achilles tendon ruptures are diagnosed clinically. State-of-the-art imaging is ultrasound using a 7.5 MHz device. The therapy strategy is decided individually based on the constitution of the patient (physical demands, activity level, patient’s age, the age of the injury and comorbidities). Looking at the literature, conservative treatment involves higher re-rupture rates. Primary surgical treatment, in a minimally invasive, percutaneous manner, shows advantages in wound healing, while yielding similar re-rupture rates compared to an open procedure. For treatment of chronic tears and re-ruptures, open procedures with autologous tendon augmentation are possible. Concerning expert assessment of Achilles tendon injuries the course of the injury takes centre stage whether or not the force causing the injury was within the physiological range.     

The Influence of Ankle Position on Radiographic Diagnosis of Acute Achilles Tendon Rupture

No previous study has demonstrated the relationship between the ankle position and radiographic diagnosis of acute Achilles tendon rupture. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of ankle position in the presence of diagnostic radiographic signs in acute Achilles tendon rupture. A retrospective review of 154 ankle lateral radiographs of acute Achilles tendon rupture was performed. Ankle position was classified as dorsiflexion, neutral, or plantar flexion by measurement of the tibiotalar angle. Kager's triangle, Toygar's angle, Arner's sign, and thickening of the Achilles tendon were assessed as diagnostic radiographic signs, and their relations to ankle position were analyzed. Interobserver reliabilities of radiographic signs were moderate to substantial (kappa value, range 0.41-0.68). All 4 signs were significantly more visible in ankle plantar flexion than dorsiflexion. The presence of Toygar's angle and positive Arner's sign were significantly increased in ankle plantar flexion compared to neutral, while the presence of Kager's triangle, and thickening of the Achilles tendon did not differ according to ankle position. The diagnostic radiographic signs of acute Achilles tendon rupture were better presented in ankle plantar flexion position than neutral and dorsiflexion positions. Neutral and dorsiflexion ankle positions should be avoided when performing lateral radiographs of patients with suspected acute Achilles tendon rupture.