Prehospital use of the Glasgow Coma Scale in severe head injury

To determine the prognostic value of prehospital Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores in severe blunt head injuries, the GCS at the scene of injury (INGCS) and the GCS in the emergency department (EDGCS) were compared with neurologic outcomes in 33 consecutive head-injured patients. Patients were categorized according to final outcome: Group I (n = 7) had no neurologic deficits, group II (n = 3) had only minor neurologic deficits, group III (n = 11) had major neurologic deficits, and group IV (n = 12) died. Mean INGCS was not significantly different for any of the four groups (range 4.14 to 4.67). However, mean EDGCS was significantly higher (P less than .05) for group I (9.43 +/- 4.08) than for group IV (5.17 +/- 3.13), and mean EDGCS for groups I and II (8.8 +/- 3.99) were significantly higher (P less than .05) than that of groups III and IV (5.7 +/- 2.88). The net change in GCS (EDGCS--INGCS) was significantly higher (P less than .05) for groups I and II (4.5 +/- 4.4) than for groups III and IV (1.3 +/- 2.91). We conclude that INGCS alone has no prognostic value, but that EDGCS and any prehospital change in GCS may have prognostic value for severely head-injured patients.     

The status of the Glasgow Coma Scale

The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) was first introduced in the 1970s to provide a simple and reliable method of recording and monitoring change in the level of consciousness of head injured patients. Since its introduction, the GCS has been widely utilized in the trauma community and its use expanded beyond the original intentions of the score. In the context of traumatic injury, this paper discusses the use of the GCS as a predictor of outcome, the limitations of the GCS, the reliability of the GCS and potential alternatives through a critical review of the literature. The relevance to Australian trauma populations is also addressed.     

Failure of the Miller Criteria to Predict Significant Intracranial Injury in Patients with a Glasgow Coma Scale Score of 14 after Minor Head Trauma

Objective: To determine the utility of the Miller criteria (presence of headache, nausea, vomiting, and signs of depressed skull fracture) for predicting the need for CT in patients with minor head trauma and a Glasgow Coma Scale score (GCS) of 14.
Methods: The study was a prospective, consecutive series of all patients undergoing head CT scans with a GCS of 14 following head trauma. A data sheet was completed for all patients prior to obtaining a head CT scan.
Results: 264 patients were entered into the study and 35 patients were found to have traumatic abnormalities on head CT scan. The use of the Miller criteria to select those patients who would require head CT scan would have resulted in missing 17 of the 35 abnormal scans, including 2 patients who required neurosurgical intervention. These 2 patients were markedly intoxicated upon presentation.
Conclusion: The use of the Miller criteria as the only criteria for screening patients with a GCS of 14 after minor head trauma who require a head CT scan is not recommended. While the authors have identified ethanol intoxication as one confounding factor, further refinement of this risk-stratification tool is required.     

对护士实施格拉斯哥昏迷评分的评价

目的 为了解护士对意识障碍病人格拉斯哥昏迷评分(Glasgow Coma Scale，GCS)掌握的情况。方法 护士在神经外科ICU对意识障碍病人进行200次Clasgow昏迷评分，并对结果进行分析，组织护士学习前后的评分结果进行对比。结果 组织护士学习前GCS评分的正确率为62％，学习后的正确率为96％。结论 通过不断地学习和实践，对护士评分的正确性有很大帮助。建议ICU护士应不断加强学习，以期得出正确的结论，为病人的护理提供准确的依据。     

Glasgow Coma Scale: variation in mortality among permutations of specific total scores

Objective: The objective of this study was to determine whether different score permutations of the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) giving the same GCS total score were associated with significantly different mortality.¶Design: For each GCS total we compared the mortality associated with each of the different GCS permutations using a Fisher's exact test. The relationship between components of the GCS score and mortality was also examined using uni- and multivariate logistic regression.¶Setting: Data were collected from the intensive care unit at Wellington Hospital, a multidisciplinary, tertiary referral unit.¶Patients: We analysed the GCS and mortality data from all admissions over a 4 year period (January 1994–January 1998). Patients with GCS scores of 3 or 15 were excluded, since these two total scores do not have multiple permutations, leaving 1390 patients with GCS scores of 4–14 for analysis.¶Results: The incidence of mortality was significantly different for the different permutations for total GCS scores of 7, 9, 11 and 14.¶Conclusions. It is possible for patients to have the same total GCS score, but significantly different risks of mortality due to differences in the GCS profile making up that score. This suggests that GCS scores may be more useful reported in terms of profiles rather than totals. This could also have implications for the use of other scoring systems such as Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation and Simplified Acute Physiology Score.     

Initial Emergency Department Trauma Scores from the OPALS Study: The Case for the Motor Score in Blunt Trauma

OBJECTIVES: To compare the predictive accuracy of the Revised Trauma Score (RTS), the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), and their components in blunt trauma patients. METHODS: This multicenter prospective cohort study was conducted in 20 communities as part of the Ontario Prehospital Advanced Life Support (OPALS) Study. It included adult trauma patients with Injury Severity Scores >12. The assessments made by trauma team leaders for the RTS, GCS, and their subscales were analyzed: 1) receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve areas and Kendall's tau c correlation coefficient (Tc) for survival to hospital discharge, 2) Mann-Whitney U test and Tc correlations for intensive care unit admission, and 3) Spearman correlations with the disability measure Glasgow Outcome Scale. RESULTS: The authors analyzed data from 795 blunt trauma patients with these characteristics: median age of 40 years, 70% male, and 18% mortality. The scores that best predicted survival were the RTS (ROC = 0.83, Tc = 0.39), the GCS (ROC = 0.82, Tc = 0.38), the motor component of the GCS (ROC = 0.81, Tc = 0.37), and the verbal component of the GCS (ROC = 0.81, Tc = 0.36). Only scores for the RTS (p = 0.03), the GCS (p = 0.02), and the motor component of the GCS (p = 0.03) showed a significant association with admission to the intensive care unit. The associations with disability were weak in all scores. CONCLUSIONS: The initial emergency department motor score showed the highest predictive validity among all of the other components. These results suggest its validity for blunt trauma triage when compared with the GCS or RTS.     

The association between field Glasgow Coma Scale score and outcome in patients undergoing paramedic rapid sequence intubation

Early intubation is standard for treating severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Aeromedical crews and select paramedic agencies use rapid sequence intubation (RSI) to facilitate intubation after TBI, with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score commonly used as a screening tool. To explore the association between paramedic GCS and outcome in patients with TBI undergoing prehospital RSI, paramedics prospectively enrolled adult major trauma victims with GCS 3–8 and clinical suspicion for head trauma to undergo succinylcholine-assisted intubation as part of the San Diego Paramedic RSI Trial. The following data were abstracted from paramedic debriefing interviews and the county trauma registry: demographics, mechanism, vital signs including GCS score, clinical evidence of aspiration before RSI, arrival laboratory values, hospital course, and outcome. Paramedic GCS calculations were confirmed during debriefing interviews. Patients were stratified by GCS score, with chi-square and receiver-operator-curve (ROC) analysis used to explore the relationship between GCS and hypoxia, head injury severity, aspiration, intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay, and outcome. Cohort analysis was used to explore potential reasons for early extubation and discharge from the ICU in some patients. A total of 412 patients were included in this analysis. A total of 81 patients (20%) were extubated and discharged from the ICU in 48 h or less; these patients had higher pre-RSI oxygen saturation (SaO₂) values and higher arrival serum ethanol levels. Paramedic and physician GCS calculations had high agreement (kappa = 0.995). A statistically significant relationship was observed between GCS score and Head Abbreviated Injury Score (AIS), survival, and pre-RSI SaO₂ values. However, ROC analysis revealed a limited ability of GCS to predict the presence of severe TBI, injury severity, desaturation, aspiration, ICU length of stay, or ultimate survival. In conclusion, paramedics seem to accurately calculate GCS values before prehospital RSI. Although a relationship between paramedic GCS and outcome exists, the ability to predict the severity of injury, airway-related complications, ICU length of stay, and overall survival is limited using this single variable. Other factors should be considered to screen TBI patients for prehospital RSI.     

Variability in agreement between physicians and nurses when measuring the Glasgow Coma Scale in the emergency department limits its clinical usefulness

Objective: To assess the interrater reliability of the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) between nurses and senior doctors in the ED. Methods: This was a prospective observational study with a convenience sample of patients aged 18 or above who presented with a decreased level of consciousness to a tertiary hospital ED. A senior ED doctor (emergency physicians and trainees) and registered nurse each independently scored the patient’s GCS in blinded fashion within 15 min of each other. The data were then analysed to determine interrater reliability using the weighted kappa statistic and the size and directions of differences between paired scores were examined. Results: A total of 108 eligible patients were enrolled, with GCS scores ranging from 3 to 14. Interrater agreement was excellent (weighted kappa > 0.75) for verbal scores and total GCS scores, and intermediate (weighted kappa 0.4–0.75) for motor and eye scores. Total GCS scores differed by more than two points in 10 of the 108 patients. Interrater agreement did not vary substantially across the range of actual numeric GCS scores. Conclusions: Although the level of agreement for GCS scores was generally high, a significant proportion of patients had GCS scores which differed by two or more points. This degree of disagreement indicates that clinical decisions should not be based solely on single GCS scores.     

Decreased Glasgow Coma Scale Score Does Not Mandate Endotracheal Intubation in the Emergency Department

Background: Decreased consciousness is a common reason for presentation to the emergency department (ED) and admission to acute hospital beds. In trauma, a Glasgow Coma Scale score (GCS) of 8 or less indicates a need for endotracheal intubation. Some advocate a similar approach for other causes of decreased consciousness, however, the loss of airway reflexes and risk of aspiration cannot be reliably predicted using the GCS alone. Study Objective: A survey of all poisoned patients with a decreased GCS who were admitted to an ED short-stay ward staffed by experienced emergency physicians, to establish the incidence of clinically significant aspiration or other morbidities and endotracheal intubation. Methods: A prospective, observational study was conducted of all patients admitted to the ED short-stay ward with a decreased level of consciousness (GCS < 15). Results: The study included 73 patients with decreased consciousness as a result of drug or alcohol intoxication. The GCS ranged from 3 to 14, and 12 patients had a GCS of 8 or less. No patient with a GCS of 8 or less aspirated or required intubation. There was one patient who required intubation; this patient had a GCS of 12 on admission to the ward. Conclusions: This study suggests that it can be safe to observe poisoned patients with decreased consciousness, even if they have a GCS of 8 or less, in the ED.     

脑外伤患者血液酒精水平与Glasgow评分的关系

目的研究脑外伤患者血液酒精水平对Glasgow评分(GCS)的影响。方法 245例脑外伤患者根据血液酒精水平分为4组,分析各组GCS的差异及血液酒精水平与GCS的相关性。结果各组GCS差异无统计学意义,血液酒精水平与GCS无明显相关性。结论 GCS仍然可以作为饮酒的脑外伤患者昏迷程度的有效评价指标。     

Correlation Of Bispectral Index With Glasgow Coma Score In Mild And Moderate Head Injuries

Background Bispectral Index (BIS) derived from electroencephalogram (EEG) is primarily developed to monitor the depth of unconsciousness. Recent evidence suggests that BIS may also help in the detection of cerebral ischemia and prognostication of outcome of traumatic brain injury (TBI). The present study was designed to investigate the correlation between Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) and BIS in mild and moderate head injury.Methods In 29 patients with mild (GCS 13–15) and moderate (GCS 9–12) head injuries who underwent craniotomy, GCS and BIS were measured before surgery, after surgery and once a day for the first 10 days.Results A significant correlation was found between GCS and BIS in the data sets from all the patients (r = 0.67; p < 0.001). Mean BIS values increased with increasing GCS scores. However, the scatter of BIS values for any GCS score was high limiting the value of BIS in predicting GCS. Mean BIS values were significantly different between mild and moderate head injuries [65.7 ± 16.1 vs. 85.7 ± 6.1, p = 0.006].Conclusion In patients with mild and moderate head injury, significant correlation exists between GCS and BIS. But the high degree of scatter of BIS values for any given GCS score limits its use as a monitor of depth of coma in TBI. Further studies are required to understand the relation between BIS algorithm and cerebral electrical activity following TBI to define the role of BIS as an electrophysiological correlate of consciousness in TBI.The study was conducted with institutional resources only and no external funding was received.Paul DB, Rao GSU. Correlation of bispectral index with glasgow coma score in mild and moderate head injuries.     

Intubation Difficulty in Poisoned Patients: Association with Initial Glasgow Coma Scale Score

Objective: To determine whether the initial Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score is predictive of intubation difficulty in out-of-hospital airway management of poisoned patients.
Methods: A prospective, observational study was performed in a toxicological intensive care unit of a university hospital and in a physician-based out-of-hospital care system. Subjects included consecutive poisoned patients intubated during their airway management by out-of-hospital medical teams before hospitalization. The intubating operator (emergency physician or nurse anesthetist) completed a 1-page checklist concerning the clinical parameters and circumstances (nature of sedation and difficulty) of endotracheal intubation upon hospital arrival.
Results: Forms were completed for all 394 consecutive out-of-hospital intubations. The patients ranged from 15 to 95 years of age (median age 38 years). Most (96%) of the intubations were via the oral route. Intubation difficulty was related to GCS values. Intubation difficulty was seen more often in patients with 7≤ GCS ≤9 (36%) than in patients with GCS <7 (15%) or >9 (10%). Not surprisingly, perceived intubation difficulty was least for those patients undergoing rapid-sequence intubation rather than administration of sedation alone.
Conclusion: Maximum difficulty of intubation is encountered in poisoned patients with 7≤ GCS ≤9. Intubation of such patients appears to be facilitated by appropriate sedation and/or neuromuscular blockade.     

Full Outline of UnResponsiveness score and Glasgow Coma Scale in medical patients with altered sensorium: Interrater reliability and relation to outcome

Purpose

Full Outline of UnResponsiveness, or FOUR score (FS), is a recently described scoring system for evaluation of altered sensorium. This study examined interrater reliability for FS and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) among medical patients with altered mental status and compared outcome predictability of GCS, FS, and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score.

Patients and Methods

Adult patients with altered mental status due to medical causes were rated by neurology consultants and internal medicine residents on FS and GCS. Interobserver reliability for GCS and FS was assessed using κ score. Relation with outcomes was explored using univariate and multivariate analyses.

Main Results

Of the 100 patients (age, 62 ± 17 years), 60 had neurologic conditions; 26, metabolic encephalopathy; 9, infections; and 7, others. Thirty-nine patients died at 3 months. κ Scores ranged from 0.71 to 0.85 for GCS and from 0.71 to 0.95 for FS. On multivariate analysis, GCS was predictive of outcome at 3 months; FS was predictive of mortality. Area under the receiver operating characteristic curves suggested equivalent performance of both scoring systems.

Conclusions

Interrater reliability and outcome predictability for FS were comparable with those for GCS. This study supports the use of FS for evaluation of altered mental status in the medical wards.     

格拉斯哥和标准吞咽功能联合评定无抽搐电休克治疗后发生呛噎临床研究

目的探讨格拉斯哥评定和标准吞咽功能联合评定,在无抽搐电休克治疗精神疾病患者后临床应用效果。方法将无抽搐电休克治疗的精神疾病患者136例,分为观察组和对照组各68例,对照组采用常规评估方法,观察组采用格拉斯哥评定量表和标准吞咽功能评定量表联合评定。比较两组患者进食和服药时间、出现呛噎的情况。结果延长进食(药)平均时间观察组较对照组明显缩短,治疗后135 min内进食人数比较差异有统计学意义(P﹤0.05);观察组无抽搐电休克治疗后呛噎发生率低于对照组(P﹤0.05)。结论采用格拉斯哥和标准吞咽功能联合评定法对无抽搐电休克治疗患者可明显缩短治疗后延长进食(药)的时间,有效避免无抽搐电休克治疗后发生呛噎。     

Applying the Trauma Triage Rule to Blunt Trauma Patients

Objective: To determine the accuracy of the Baxt Trauma Triage Rule (TTR: systolic blood pressure < 85 mm Hg; Glasgow Coma Scale-motor score < 5; or penetrating trauma to head, neck, or trunk) for prediction of major trauma in an independent data set of blunt trauma patients.
Methods: Retrospective evaluation of the TTR in a cohort of patients identified by Oregon Trauma System entry criteria. Accuracy for prediction of "major trauma" victims was measured using resource-based definitions of major trauma. Participants included 626 adult, blunt trauma patients at a level-I trauma center serving a metropolitan center of more than one million people.
Results: Of 524 patients with sufficient registry data to apply the TTR, 95 (18%) and 63 (12%) patients met the criteria for major trauma suggested by Baxt et al. and Emerman et al., respectively. Using the Baxt definition of major trauma, the TTR had a sensitivity of 74% (95% CI: 0.65–0.83) and a specificity of 84% (95% CI: 0.81–0.88). There were 25 significant false-negative results, including 12 patients requiring urgent laparoscopy and four patients requiring emergency airway procedures. Using the Emerman definition of major trauma, sensitivity improved modestly to 76% (95% CI: 0.65–0.87) and specificity decreased slightly to 80% (95% CI: 0.77–0.84).
Conclusions: In this blunt trauma population, the Baxt TTR failed to identify a significant number of severely injured patients. Slight alterations in the definition of "major trauma" can significantly affect the performance characteristics of triage instruments.