Reviewing the safety of erlotinib in non-small cell lung cancer

Importance of the field: Erlotinib, a potent inhibitor of EGFR activity, is approved as a monotherapy for the treatment of advanced NSCLC and in combination with gemcitabine for advanced pancreatic cancer. The oral administration and manageable toxicity of erlotinib, along with its similar efficacy to chemotherapy, make it an important option as either maintenance therapy or in second-/third-line for patients with NSCLC who have previously received first-line chemotherapy. It is also an emerging option in other treatment settings in NSCLC.

Areas covered in this review: This review summarizes safety data from major clinical trials of erlotinib in patients with advanced NSCLC, as well as post-marketing data obtained in the 5 years since this drug was first approved.

What the reader will gain: An understanding of the common toxicities expected with erlotinib in patients with advanced NSCLC.

Take home message: Erlotinib is a well-tolerated treatment option for patients with advanced NSCLC. The main adverse events of rash and diarrhea are typically mild or moderate in severity, and rarely lead to treatment withdrawal. When necessary, rash and diarrhea can be easily managed prophylactically, by active intervention or through dose reduction.     

非小细胞肺癌表皮生长因子受体基因突变的结果分析

目的回顾性分析301例非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)组织表皮生长因子受体(EGFR)基因突变检测结果,比较三种实验方法检查EGFR突变的差异。探讨肺癌临床靶向个体化治疗进行EGFR分子病理检查的最佳方法。方法应用聚合酶链反应(PCR)结合直接测序法检测171例肺癌DNA样本;TaqMan探针荧光定量PCR法检测88例肺癌DNA样本;扩增阻碍突变系统(ARMS)法检测42例肺癌DNA样本。结果 PCR直接测序法、TaqMan探针荧光定量PCR法、ARMS法的阳性总检出率分别是31.58%、27.27%、42.86%。结论 PCR直接测序法和TaqMan探针荧光定量PCR法阳性总检出率差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),ARMS法阳性总检出率高于PCR直接测序法和TaqMan探针荧光定量PCR法(P均<0.01)。对于不同来源的肺癌组织标本,不同方法检测EGFR突变具有各自的优点和不足。     

Sorafenib in non-small cell lung cancer

ISIS 2302 is a 20 base phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) that inhibits intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) expression through an antisense mechanism. Murine and rat analogues have been effective at doses of 0.06 - 10 mg/kg in a spectrum of models of human inflammatory diseases and allograft transplantation, and ISIS 2302 inhibits the upregulation of ICAM-1 expression in a variety of human cells in vitro. In animals, including primates, plasma distribution half-life ranges from 30 - 60 min, but tissue elimination half-lives range from 1 - 5 days, and the compound is metabolised as other nucleic acids. In a Phase I iv. study, the pharmacokinetic behaviour of ISIS 2302 was similar to that in other primates, and single and multiple every other day doses from 0.06 - 2 mg/kg infused over 2 h were well-tolerated. Phase IIa studies have been completed in Crohn’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis, and a combined Phase I/II renal allograft acute rejection prophylaxis study has just completed enrolment. In these studies, ISIS 2302, 0.5 - 2 mg/kg, or placebo was administered iv. every 2 - 3 days over 14 - 26 days (7 - 13 infusions) to 17 - 52 patients, with follow up for 6 months. In the Crohn’s study, evidence of highly durable (5+ month) remission-inducing and steroid-sparing properties were demonstrated, without clinically important adverse events. A 300-patient, pivotal quality trial investigating the steroid-sparing and remission-inducing qualities of ISIS 2302 in patients with steroid-dependent Crohn’s disease is completely enrolled, with results expected in the first half of 2000. Modest efficacy and excellent tolerability were demonstrated in the psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis trials. A Phase IIa trial of a topical formulation in patients with psoriasis is expected to commence in late 1999, as is a trial of an enema formulation in distal ulcerative colitis. Administration by nebulisation for asthma is undergoing preclinical evaluation. Execution of future plans in organ transplantation will await the results of the ongoing Phase I/II trial.     

Osimertinib for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: The T790 M mutation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene is the most common mechanism underlying resistance to first- or second-generation EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Osimertinib, a third-generation EGFR TKI, shows robust clinical efficacy in patients with T790 M-mutated lung cancer.

Areas covered: We analyzed and reviewed clinical data for which patients who experienced acquired resistance to first- or second-generation EGFR TKIs. In addition, we briefly reviewed the potential role of osimertinib as a first-line therapy.

Expert opinion: Osimertinib was recently licensed for use in NSCLC patients with acquired resistance to other EGFR TKIs due to a T790 M mutation. However, unresolved issues surrounding the optimal application of osimertinib remain, specifically the development of a plasma-based mutation test to overcome the difficulty of repeat biopsy, the efficacy of osimertinib for brain or leptomeningeal metastases, the development of resistance to osimertinib, and the use of osimertinib therapy as a first-line treatment. Many ongoing studies are currently exploring these issues.     

Identifying nonsmall‐cell lung tumours bearing the T790M EGFR TKI resistance mutation using PET imaging

Specific mutations significantly affect response to epidermal growth factor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR‐TKI) treatment in lung cancer patients. Identifying patients with these mutations remains a major clinical challenge. EGFR T790M mutation, which conveys resistance to in the present study, [¹⁸F]FEWZ was assessed in vitro to determine efficacy relative to the starting compound and in vivo to measure the biodistribution and specificity of binding to EGFR wild‐type, L858R and T790M bearing tumours. [¹⁸F]FEWZ is the first evidence of a radiolabeled third generation anilinopyrimidine‐derived tyrosine kinase inhibitor targeting T790M mutation bearing tumours in vivo.     

EGFR基因靶向治疗非小细胞肺癌的研究进展

非小细胞肺癌(Non-small cell lung cancer,NSCLC)是现阶段临床发现的肺癌患者中发病率最高的一种类型,治疗手段匮乏,效果不甚理想,目前临床中研究热点是EGFR基因在NSCLC靶向治疗中的作用。表皮生长因子受体酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(EGFR-TKIs)是基于EGFR基因作用而开发出来,用于治疗EGFR基因突变阳性的NSCLC患者。本文综述了EGFR基因靶向治疗非小细胞肺癌的研究进展。     

非小细胞肺癌中EGFR基因突变及靶向药物治疗研究进展

报道在非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)中表皮生长因子受体(EGFR)基因突变与非小细胞肺癌发生的相关性,尤其在东方人群、女性、非吸烟者、腺癌的患者中突变率更高的现状。分别对EGFR基因突变与临床病理特征的关系、相关靶向药物治疗、检测方法等方面进展进行了综述,EGFR基因突变检测将会成为今后研究EGFR靶向药物治疗的热点。     

埃克替尼对EGFR基因突变型非小细胞肺癌患者治疗效果分析

目的 探讨埃克替尼对EGFR基因突变型非小细胞肺癌患者治疗效果及安全性.方法 择取确诊为非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)患者60例的病例资料进行回顾性分析,经EGFR检测均为EGFR基因突变型,其中外显子19缺失患者20例(19缺失组),外显子21L858R突变患者24例(21突变组),外显子20T790M突变患者16例(20突变组).三组均给予盐酸埃克替尼治疗,评价其治疗效果及安全性.结果 20突变组部分缓解、疾病稳定例数均不及19缺失组、21突变组(均P<0.05);20突变组近期有效率为6.25％,疾病控制率为25.00％,中位无进展生存期为1.8个月,中位总生存期为12.5个月,效果均不及19缺失组和21突变组(P<0.05);三组中最常见的不良反应为皮疹、腹泻、恶心、腹胀,各组大多均为不良反应Ⅰ级和Ⅱ级,各组间不良反应发生率比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).结论 盐酸埃克替尼用于EGFR基因突变型NSCLC患者的治疗,对外显子19缺失、21L858R突变患者的治疗效果较好,且较安全.     

Emerging drugs for EGFR-mutated non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) represent the standard of care for patients with metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring sensitizing EGFR mutations. However, these agents are associated with inevitable treatment resistance. Newer generations of TKIs are under development that may prevent or overcome resistance and enhance intracranial activity.

Areas covered: In this review, we will discuss newer generations of EGFR TKIs for EGFR-mutated NSCLC. We will also address resistance mutations and escape pathways associated with these agents such as secondary mutations, downstream signaling, bypass pathways, phenotypic transformation, anti-apoptotic signaling, immune evasion, and angiogenesis. Furthermore, this article encompasses emerging data from combination trials with next-generation TKIs that are being pursued to delay or prevent the occurrence of resistance.

Expert opinion: The promise and challenge of precision oncology is encapsulated in the treatment of EGFR-mutated NSCLC with TKIs. Third generation TKIs have shown superior efficacy in the front-line setting and have become standard of care. A better understanding of mechanisms of treatment failure and disease relapse will be required to develop novel therapeutic strategies to further improve patient outcomes in the future.     

Investigational drugs targeting fibroblast growth factor receptor in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: Fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) due to its central role in regulating cell survival, is a promising target for cancer therapeutics. Dysregulation of the FGFR pathway has been observed in several malignancies, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) particularly in patients with squamous histology.

Areas covered: The aim of this article is to review the most relevant findings of clinical trials investigating drugs targeting FGFR pathway: such as FGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), FGFR monoclonal antibodies and FGF ligand traps in NSCLC patients.

Expert opinion: At present, clinical activity of drugs targeting FGFR in NSCLC is disappointing. Further studies are needed in order to better identify patients who might benefit from these drugs and to clarify the mechanisms of resistance to these compounds.     

Osimertinib for EGFR T790M mutation-positive non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: Significant advances have been made since the development of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs) targeting EGFR mutations in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), however, lung cancer cells eventually acquire resistance to those agents. Osimertinib (AZD9291) has been developed as 3^rd generation EGFR-TKI with activities against sensitizing mutations and T790 M resistance mutation, which account for about 50% of the mechanisms of acquired resistance to 1^st or 2^nd generation EGFR-TKIs. A recent phase I/II clinical trial with osimertinib for advanced NSCLC patients with known sensitizing EGFR mutations and documented disease progression on prior EGFR-TKIs revealed promising effect with acceptable toxicities.

Areas covered: This article summarizes current understanding and available preclinical and clinical data on osimertinib and also discusses future directions. The literature search included PubMed and the latest articles from international conferences.

Expert commentary: The development of osimertinib has provided new therapeutic options for NSCLC patients harboring T790 M. Compared with other EGFR-TKIs including rociletinib, osimertinib seems to possess an advantage with respect to the effect and safety profile among existing EGFR-TKIs. However, tumor progression still occurs even when treating with osimertinib. A further understanding of the mechanisms of resistance is eagerly anticipated in order to develop next generation EGFR-TKIs.     

奥希替尼一线治疗EGFR突变型非小细胞肺癌脑转移患者的临床疗效

目的 探讨奥希替尼一线治疗表皮生长因子受体（EGFR）突变敏感的非小细胞肺癌（NSCLC）脑转移患者的临床疗效。方法 选取2018年1月至2021年8月在中南大学湘雅医院就诊的EGFR突变并接受奥希替尼一线治疗的NSCLC脑转移患者为研究对象。观察治疗3个月后所有患者的颅内客观缓解率（iORR）、颅内疾病控制率（iDCR）,比较不同临床特征患者iORR和iDCR的差异;记录治疗期间不良反应发生率;随访所有患者治疗后疾病进展和死亡情况,并采用COX回归模型分析奥希替尼一线治疗的预后影响因素。结果 本研究共纳入82例NSCLC脑转移患者,接受奥希替尼一线治疗3个月后iORR为69.5%,iDCR为96.3%;不同年龄、性别、是否吸烟、PS评分、EGFR突变类型、脑转移部位、是否有其他部位转移、是否有中枢神经症状的NSCLC脑转移患者iORR和iDCR比较,差异均无统计学意义（P>0.05）;治疗期间不良反应总发生率为50.0%;总生存率为73.2%,无进展生存率为78.0%;COX回归分析结果显示,EFGR突变类型为L858R的NSCLC脑转移患者发生死亡的风险是19del突变患者的2.793倍（95% CI： 0.134~0.956, P=0.040）,年龄>60岁的NSCLC脑转移患者发生死亡的风险是年龄≤60岁患者的4.385倍（95% CI： 1.267~15.175, P=0.020）。结论 奥希替尼一线治疗EGFR突变型NSCLC脑转移患者可获得良好的iORR和iDCR,且安全性较好。EGFR突变类型为L858R和年龄>60岁是NSCLC脑转移患者奥希替尼一线治疗的预后危险因素。     

Luteolin is effective in the non-small cell lung cancer model with L858R/T790M EGF receptor mutation and erlotinib resistance

Background and Purpose

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed malignancies in the world. Small-molecule inhibitors of the EGF receptor''s tyrosine kinase domain (TKIs), including gefitinib and erlotinib, have been widely used for treating NSCLC. Unfortunately, nearly all patients after initially experiencing a marked improvement while on these drugs, eventually progress to acquire resistance to TKIs. Because there is no effective therapeutic strategy to treat TKI-resistant NSCLC, we evaluated the effects of luteolin, a naturally occurring flavanoid, on T790M mutant NSCLC cells.

Experimental Approach

The effect of luteolin on the viability of NSCLC and normal cell lines was investigated using the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Luteolin-induced apoptosis was assessed by bivariate FITC-annexin V/PI assay, and Western blots were used to measured apoptotic proteins. Co-immunoprecipitation was used to determine the effect of luteolin on the interaction between Hsp90 and mutant EGF receptors. The effect of luteolin on the Akt/mTOR pathway was studied using Western blotting analysis. Its anti-tumour efficacy in vivo was examined in a mouse xenograft model.

Key Results

Luteolin exerted significant anti-tumourigenic effects on the EGF receptor L858R/T790M mutation and erlotinib-resistant NSCLC both at the cellular and animal levels. Mechanistically, luteolin induced degradation of the EGF receptor by inhibiting the association of Hsp90 with the mutant EGF receptor, and, therefore, prevented PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling, which resulted in NSCLC cell apoptosis.

Conclusion and Implications

Luteolin may be a potential candidate for NSCLC therapy, especially for treatment of patients with acquired erlotinib-resistant NSCLC.     

Developments in pharmacotherapy for treating metastatic non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: Most patients with non-small cell lung (NSCLC), including squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma and large cell carcinoma, have advanced disease at diagnosis and systemic therapy is the standard-of-care. About 20% of Caucasian patients are affected by an oncogene-addicted advanced NSCLC for which correspondent inhibitors are available.

Areas covered: The main state-of-the-art synthetic anticancer drugs in the groups of chemotherapeutics, epidermal growth factor receptor and anaplastic lymphoma kinase tyrosine kinase inhibitors for NSCLC treatment, are reviewed and discussed from phase III randomized practice-changing trials onwards. A structured search of bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed research literature and of main meetings using a focused review question was undertaken.

Expert opinion: The survival of NSCLC patients is increasing, regardless of the presence or not of a specific target, due to the availability of new generation drugs. The continuous deep knowledge of the mechanisms of NSCLC development and the constant research into new drugs should lead to the discovery of new potential targets and the synthesis of corresponding inhibitors to improve the outcomes of each subgroup of patients in order to control the disease in a constantly growing percentage of patients.     

EGFR基因突变在非小细胞肺癌胸水细胞块中的检测分析

目的 分析表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor,EGFR)基因突变在非小细胞肺癌阳性胸水中的表达情况.方法 将胸水内查见非小细胞肺癌的病例其阳性胸水离心沉渣制作细胞块.分离细胞块样品DNA,使用实时荧光检测PCR(ARMS-PCR)检测215例非小细胞肺癌细胞块和404例非小细胞肺癌组织块中EGFR的29种突变类型,并检测细胞块同时送检组织块的患者74例的一致性.结果 细胞决EGFR基因突变型102例,突变率47.44％(102/215);组织块EGFR突变型172例,突变率42.57％(172/404);74例有组织块对照的细胞块EGFR结果一致性有53例,一致率达71.62％(53/74),其中细胞块EGFR的突变率44.59％(33/74),组织块突变率70.27％(52/74).结论 可以应用非小细胞肺癌阳性胸水细胞块代替肿瘤组织检测EGFR基因突变,对指导晚期肺腺癌患者靶向药物治疗具有重要指导意义.     

Sanger法检测分析非小细胞肺癌患者组织EGFR

目的探讨Sanger法检测非小细胞肺癌（non-small cell lung cancer,NSCLC）患者组织表皮生长因子受体（epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR）基因突变情况,为肺癌病人“个体化靶向分子治疗”提供依据。方法收集63例NSCLC患者组织标本（石蜡切片）,提取组织DNA,用EGFR外显子18、19、20和21四位点的分子扩增（PCR）试剂盒进行外显子扩增,扩增产物先后进行电泳鉴定、酶解,酶解产物PCR扩增、纯化,纯化产物用ABI-3130型基因分析仪检测得出EGFR外显子18、19、20、21的野生或突变状态结果,并分析EGFR基因突变和患者临床病理生理特征、临床靶向用药疗效的关系。结果测试显示肺腺癌患者EGFR基因19、21外显子的突变率为33．3％（21／63）,而EGFR基因的突变与患者的病理组织学类型、吸烟状态有关（P〈0．05）。同时EGFR突变患者能从临床靶向用药获益。结论Sanger法检测NSCLC突变情况可为临床靶向用药提供技术支持。     

Novel immunotherapy in the treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: Lung cancers remain the principal cause of death cancer-related worldwide with a poor survival rate at five years from diagnosis. In patients with NSCLC harboring specific genetic alterations the anti EGFR TKIs and the ALK TKIs have improved the response rate and the quality of life compared to standard platinum-based chemotherapy. New approaches possibly applicable at the major of patients are needed.

Areas covered: The discovery that the immune system plays a fundamental role in the fight against cancer. The cancer cells use mechanisms able to avoid the immune control has led to the development of drugs able to overcome this escape route. The best known checkpoint pathways are the CTLA-4 and PD-1/PD-L1; they suppress T-cell activity in different ways: CTLA-4 regulates T-cell activity at an early stage whereas PD-1 regulates later effector T-cell activity within tissue and tumors. The best characterized checkpoint inhibitors in advanced NSCLC setting are ipilimumab and tremelimumab, (anti-CTLA-4 antibodies), nivolumab and pembrolizumab (anti-PD-1 antibodies), atezolizumab and durvalumab (anti-PD-L1 antibodies). Nivolumab and pembrolizumab have received the FDA and EMA approval for the treatment of NSCLC in second-line setting.

Expert commentary: The role played by tumor microenvironment may be the next area of research to overcome the resistance at the checkpoint inhibitors as well as the identification of biomarkers to better select patients. In addition checkpoint inhibitors are investigate in combination with other agent involved in immune control with promising results in solid tumors.     

EGFR、ALK双突变非小细胞肺癌1例

表皮生长因子受体（epithelial growth factor receptor,EGFR）和间变性淋巴瘤激酶（anaplastic lymphoma kinase,ALK）双突变作为罕见分子事件,发生率为1.3%～1.6%,其临床病理特点还不是很清楚,治疗策略尚无定论,尤其是靶向药物的选择。本文报道威海市中心医院2021年11月收治的1例EGFR和ALK基因双突变共存女性肺腺癌患者临床资料,并复习相关文献,以期为该类患者的治疗提供临床借鉴,对于其治疗经过及治疗过程中出现的不良反应进行了随访观察,现报道如下。     

Pemetrexed in advanced non-small cell lung cancer

Introduction: For patients with advanced NSCLC, treatment outcomes are still disappointing and the search for new active and safe drugs is warranted. The chemotherapeutic agent pemetrexed has produced, in the last years, an innovation of therapeutic algorithms of this disease, and this review is aimed at describing the role of pemetrexed in the treatment of NSCLC.

Areas covered: In the present review, we discuss the mechanism of action of pemetrexed, its safety profile and the main clinical data on pemetrexed in NSCLC treatment. The reader will gain information on pemetrexed efficacy in the first-line, second-line and maintenance treatment of advanced NSCLC. Moreover, the histotype-based approach to NSCLC treatment, which is important for the selection of patients to be treated with pemetrexed, is clarified.

Expert opinion: The recent introduction of pemetrexed in the first-line and maintenance treatment of advanced non-squamous NSCLC represents, in our opinion, a significant step forward in the treatment of this disease in the last 3 years. Furthermore, cisplatin plus pemetrexed has a more favorable safety profile as compared with those of pre-existing cisplatin-based regimens.