Demonstration of the appearance of the paraspinal musculoligamentous structures of the cervical spine using ultrasound

The application of ultrasound in the imaging of the neck has primarily focussed on anterior structures (e.g., thyroid gland). Structures located on the posterior aspect of the neck have received little attention. This study illustrates the capability of modern ultrasound equipment in visualising the musculoligamentous structures of the neck, particularly the paraspinal musculature. Ten healthy adult volunteers (6 female; 4 male) underwent ultrasound examination of the cervical spine. A standardised technique for transducer placement was adopted and successive images of the neck of each subject were obtained. Spatial compound (extended field of view) images were obtained in subjects using one of two different ultrasound systems. Images of structures produced by ultrasound were compared to those achieved with magnetic resonance imaging in three subjects. Identification of key landmarks aided orientation and identification of structures. The internal architecture of the musculoligamentous structures of the cervical spine, especially the posterior neck muscles, was demonstrated well using ultrasound. Our study showed that modern ultrasound equipment is capable of producing clear images of the posterior cervical spine musculature and certain bony features.     

Sexual dimorphism of the posterior cervical spine muscle attachments

Cervical spinal injury and neck pain are common disorders with wide physical implications. Neck pain and disability are reported to occur in females more often than in males, and chronic or persistent neck pain after whiplash is twice as common in females. Female athletes also sustain a higher percentage of concussions compared to male athletes. Still, while sexual differences in clinical presentation and outcome are well-established, the underlying etiology for the disparity remains less clear. It is well-established that the origin and insertion landmarks of posterior neck muscles are highly variable, but we do not know if these interindividual differences are associated with sex. Expanding our knowledge on sexual dimorphism in the anatomy of the cervical muscles is essential to our understanding of the possible biomechanical differences between the sexes and hence improves our understanding as to why females suffer from cervical pain more than males. It is also of paramount importance for accurate planning of posterior cervical spine surgery, which cuts through the posterior cervical musculature. Therefore, our main objective is to characterize the anatomy of posterior neck musculature and to explore possible sexual differences in the location of their attachment points. Meticulous posterior neck dissection was performed on 35 cadavers, 19 females, and 16 males. In each specimen, 8 muscle groups were examined bilaterally at 45 osseous anatomical landmarks. Muscles and their attachment sites were evaluated manually then photographed and recorded using Microscribe Digitizer technology built into 3D models. A comparison of attachment landmarks between males and females for each muscle was conducted. Out of the eight muscles that were measured, only two muscles demonstrated significant sex-related anatomical differences—Spinotranversales (splenius capitis and cervicis) and Multifidus. Male Spinotransversales muscle has more attachment points than female. It showed more cranial insertion points in the upper cervical attachments (superior nuchal line, C₁ posterior tubercle, and mastoid process) and more caudal insertion points in the spinous processes and transverse processes of the lower cervical and upper thoracic vertebrae. Thus, the male subjects in this study exhibited a greater coverage of the posterior neck both cranially and caudally. Female Multifidus has more attachment points on the spinous processes and articular processes at middle and lower cervical vertebrae and at the transverse processes of the upper thoracic vertebrae. All remaining muscles exhibited no sexual differences. Our findings highlight, for the first time, a sexual dimorphism in attachment points of posterior cervical musculature. It reinforces the notion that the female neck is not a scaled version of the male neck. These differences in muscle attachment could partially explain differences in muscle torque production and range of motion and thus biomechanical differences in cervical spine stabilization between sexes. It sheds a much-needed light on the reason for higher whiplash rates, concussion, and chronic cervical pain among females. Surgeons should take these sexual morphological differences into consideration when deliberating the best surgical approach for posterior cervical surgery.     

6岁儿童全颈有限元模型的构建及验证

目的利用6岁儿童颈部有限元模型预测不同载荷下颈部损伤的力学响应。方法基于CT图像构建具有真实肌肉的6岁儿童颈部有限元模型,应用该模型通过分别重构儿童颈椎不同节段的动态拉伸实验、全颈椎拉伸实验和儿童志愿者低速碰撞实验验证其有效性。结果不同椎段拉伸仿真试验和全颈椎拉伸仿真试验中的力-位移曲线能够较好吻合实验曲线;儿童志愿者仿真试验的头部角速度-时间历程曲线位于实验数据通道内,吻合较好。结论该模型有效性得到验证,可用于研究儿童颈部不同载荷条件下的生物力学响应及损伤机制。     

Detection and Labeling of Vertebrae in MR Images Using Deep Learning with Clinical Annotations as Training Data

The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of using clinically provided spine label annotations stored in a single institution image archive as training data for deep learning-based vertebral detection and labeling pipelines. Lumbar and cervical magnetic resonance imaging cases with annotated spine labels were identified and exported from an image archive. Two separate pipelines were configured and trained for lumbar and cervical cases respectively, using the same setup with convolutional neural networks for detection and parts-based graphical models to label the vertebrae. The detection sensitivity, precision and accuracy rates ranged between 99.1–99.8, 99.6–100, and 98.8–99.8% respectively, the average localization error ranges were 1.18–1.24 and 2.38–2.60 mm for cervical and lumbar cases respectively, and with a labeling accuracy of 96.0–97.0%. Failed labeling results typically involved failed S1 detections or missed vertebrae that were not fully visible on the image. These results show that clinically annotated image data from one image archive is sufficient to train a deep learning-based pipeline for accurate detection and labeling of MR images depicting the spine. Further, these results support using deep learning to assist radiologists in their work by providing highly accurate labels that only require rapid confirmation.     

双X线透视成像系统进行颈椎在体运动研究方法学的探索

目的观察应用双X线透视成像系统在颈椎在体运动学研究中下颌骨对颈椎图像的干扰度,探索颈椎在体运动学最佳位置的透视方法,为颈椎在体运动学研究提供方法学的可行性论证。方法应用双X线透视成像系统分别在两个C型臂夹角呈正交(90°)位、60°位及45°位采集健康志愿者5名(男4名,女1名)颈椎双平面X线图像,包括中立位、前屈后伸位、左右旋转位、左右侧屈位,比较各个不同位置时下颌骨对颈椎椎体图像的遮挡;采用下颌角对颈椎的干扰程度来作为评价的标准,通过对各个不同位置时下颌骨对颈椎图像干扰程度的评分,筛选最佳角度的透视方法。在做颈椎左右旋转运动透视时,比较躯干固定-头颅旋转模式和头颅固定-躯干旋转模式下下颌骨对颈椎图像的干扰程度,分别采集两种模式下的透视图像。结果 90°、60°和45°位时中立位、前屈后伸位、左右侧屈位、左右旋位透视下颌骨对颈椎图像干扰度均存在显著性差异(P<0.05)。45°位在上述位置时干扰度最小。在相同角度60°位,躯干固定-头颅旋转组与头颅固定-躯干旋转组相比有显著性差异(P<0.05)。结论颈椎在体运动学研究中应用双X线透视成像系统在交角45°位时可以最大限度的减少下颌骨的阻挡,坐位同轴躯干旋转代替头颅旋转可以减少下颌骨的干扰度,基本满足双X线成像系统二维-三维图像的匹配条件。     

首例中国数字化可视人体脊柱区颈段的三维重建研究

目的 建立中国数字化可视人体男性脊柱区颈段的三维可视化模型。方法 应用首例中国数字化可视人体数据集，选取从寰椎上缘到第7颈椎下缘的连续横断面图像。在SGI工作站上对颈椎、脊髓、椎动脉、椎间盘、颈神经等结构进行计算机三维重建并立体显示。结果 建立了脊柱区颈段重要结构的三维可视化模型，重建后的结构可多彩色立体显示，既能单独显示，也能任意搭配或总体显示，可在三维空间位置上绕任意轴旋转任意角度观察。结论 脊柱区颈段的可视化数字模型，用三维图形方法显示该区结构的空间构形，将有助于解剖学教学，并可为颈部疾病的影像诊断和外科手术等提供参考。     

Structural and functional anatomy of the neck musculature of the dog (Canis familiaris)

The morphometric properties and the anatomical relationships of the entire musculature of the canine cervical spine are reported herein. These data were obtained from the dissection of cadavers of six dogs. Total muscle length, muscle weight, fascicle length and angles of pennation were recorded for each muscle comprising the canine cervical spine. Based upon these properties, physiological cross-section area (PCSA) and architectural index were estimated. When scaled by whole body mass, the values of each of these parameters were found to be similar between all dogs. Muscles that course from the cranial neck to the shoulder girdle or the rib cage (e.g. brachiocephalicus and rhomboideus capitis) were found to have relatively long fascicles and low PCSA values and thus appear to be designed for rapid excursions. By contrast, muscles that primarily support the neck and shoulder against gravitational forces (e.g. serratus ventralis and trapezius) were found to have relatively high PCSA values and short fascicle lengths, and thus have the capacity to generate large forces. Differences of morphometry as well as nomenclature were found between the canine and human neck musculature. Nevertheless, many similarities exist; in particular, both species have similar muscles adapted to force generation or large excursions. We thus conclude that the canine neck may be used as a modelling tool for biomechanical investigations of the human cervical region as long as the differences listed are borne in mind.     

Quantitative ASL muscle perfusion imaging using a FAIR-TrueFISP technique at 3.0 T

The feasibility of muscle perfusion imaging with diagnostic image quality was demonstrated using the FAIR-TrueFISP arterial spin labeling technique on a clinical 3.0 T whole-body scanner. In eight healthy volunteers (24 to 42 years old), quantitative perfusion maps of the forearm musculature were acquired before and after intense exercise. All measurements were carried out in a 3.0 T whole-body MR unit in combination with an eight-channel head coil. Pulsed arterial spin labeling and data recording were performed with an adapted FAIR-TrueFISP technique and quantitative perfusion maps were calculated on a pixel-by-pixel basis by means of the extended Bloch equations. Perfusion images with an in-plane resolution of 1 mm showed no significant distortions or blurring. Perfusion-time curves could be recorded with a temporal resolution of 6.4 s. Maximum perfusion in the musculature was found approximately 2 min after exercise, reaching values of up to 220 mL/min per 100 g of tissue with good delineation between the active muscles and the musculature not involved in the exercise. In conclusion, the TrueFISP pulsed arterial spin labeling technique allows patient-friendly assessment of muscular perfusion in a clinical whole-body scanner.     

孕中晚期正常胎儿颈椎长度与胎龄关系的磁共振研究

目的　研究正常胎儿标本颈椎长度与孕周变化的关系,绘制正常胎儿脊柱长度生长曲线。 方法　本研究为前瞻性研究,利用3.0T MR扫描仪对65例16~42周自然流产及因母体或胎儿因素引产的胎儿标本行全脊柱3D-T2WI序列扫描,对所得图像进行三方位重建,在正中矢状位上测量颈椎长度及C4椎体的高度,建立相关线性回归方程。 结果　胎儿颈椎长度及C4椎体高度与孕周的线性回归方程分别为：颈椎长度（cm）=0.193＋0.117孕周,R2 =0.94 ,P<0.05;C4椎体高度（cm）=0.025+0.013孕周,R2 =0.94,P<0.05。颈段脊柱发育有着时间的不平衡性,在生长发育过程中有两个发育高峰,分别为23~26孕周及31~34孕周;同样在这两个高峰,椎体高度增长速度较快。 结论　孕中晚期,胎儿颈椎长度的增加与胎龄呈良好相关性,椎体的相关径线是评估胎儿脊椎发育的可靠指标。     

Short-scan-time multi-slice diffusion MRI of the mouse cervical spinal cord using echo planar imaging

Mouse spinal cord (SC) diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) provides important information on tissue morphology and structural changes that may occur during pathologies such as multiple sclerosis or SC injury. The acquisition scheme of the commonly used DWI techniques is based on conventional spin-echo encoding, which is time-consuming. The purpose of this work was to investigate whether the use of echo planar imaging (EPI) would provide good-quality diffusion MR images of mouse SC, as well as accurate measurements of diffusion-derived metrics, and thus enable diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and highly resolved DWI within reasonable scan times. A four-shot diffusion-weighted spin-echo EPI (SE-EPI) sequence was evaluated at 11.75 T on a group of healthy mice (n = 10). SE-EPI-derived apparent diffusion coefficients of gray and white matter were compared with those obtained using a conventional spin-echo sequence (c-SE) to validate the accuracy of the method. To take advantage of the reduction in acquisition time offered by the EPI sequence, multi-slice DTI acquisitions were performed covering the cervical segments (six slices, six diffusion-encoding directions, three b values) within 30 min (vs 2 h for c-SE). From these measurements, fractional anisotropy and mean diffusivities were calculated, and fiber tracking along the C1 to C6 cervical segments was performed. In addition, high-resolution images (74 x 94 microm(2)) were acquired within 5 min per direction. Clear delineation of gray and white matter and identical apparent diffusion coefficient values were obtained, with a threefold reduction in acquisition time compared with c-SE. While overcoming the difficulties associated with high spatially and temporally resolved DTI measurements, the present SE-EPI approach permitted identification of reliable quantitative parameters with a reproducibility compatible with the detection of pathologies. The SE-EPI method may be particularly valuable when multiple sets of images from the SC are needed, in cases of rapidly evolving conditions, to decrease the duration of anesthesia or to improve MR exploration by including additional MR measurements. Copyright (c) 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Magnetic resonance imaging investigation of the atlanto‐axial interspace

The objective of this study is to examine the anatomy of the atlanto‐axial interspace using magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Two hundred and forty MR images of living subjects were examined for the presence of a posterior dural prominence and oblique hypointense fibers between the first and second cervical neural arches. Of the 240 images analyzed, 64% revealed a posterior concavity of the cervical dura mater. Of this, 24% also revealed oblique, linear hypointense fibers that appeared to be in direct contact with the dura mater. Twenty‐three percent of the 240 images revealed oblique, linear hypointense fibers. Of the 23% that exhibited these fibers, 76% had an associated posterior thecal concavity of the cervical dura mater. A posterior dural prominence and oblique hypointense fibers were present in the atlanto‐axial interspace in a significant number of randomly selected magnetic resonance images. These findings may represent normal, nonpathological anatomy found on MR images and may be related to a recently reported anatomical structure. Clin. Anat. 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

MR影像诊断肩关节损伤的效果分析

目的 探讨MR间接关节造影对肩关节损伤的诊断价值。方法 选取2016年1月~2017年10月在玉山县人民医院接受治疗的72例肩关节损伤患者作为研究对象。对所有患者实施MR影像诊断,观察各种肩关节损伤的形态结构以及软组织的信号特征;将MR影像诊断结果与手术或关节镜准确诊断相对比。结果 通过关节镜诊断出68例肩袖撕裂患者,MR影像诊断出65例,准确率为95.59%;关节镜诊断出16例盂唇损伤患者,MR影像诊断出14例,准确率为87.50%。结论 MR影像在肩关节损失的诊断中,对肩关节组织的形态结构有较好效果的呈现,对于肩袖撕裂、盂唇损伤等症状有较高的诊断率,能够为肩关节损伤患者的临床诊疗提供有效依据。     

Magnetic resonance imaging of the tensor vastus intermedius: A topographic study based on anatomical dissections

The tensor of the vastus intermedius (TVI) is a newly described component of the extensor apparatus of the knee joint. The objective of this study was to evaluate the appearance of the TVI on magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and its association with the adjacent vastus lateralis (VL) and vastus intermedius (VI) muscles and to compare these findings with the corresponding anatomy. MR images were analyzed from a cadaveric thigh where the TVI, as part of the extensor apparatus of the knee joint, had been dissected. The course of the TVI in relation to the adjacent VL and VI was studied. The anatomic dissection and MR imaging revealed a multilayered organization of the lateral extensor apparatus of the knee joint. The TVI is an intervening muscle between the VL and VI that combined into a broad flat aponeurosis in the midthigh and merged into the quadriceps tendon. Dorsally, the muscle fibers of the TVI joined those of the VL and VI and blended into the attachment at the lateral lip of the linea aspera. In this area, distinguishing between these three muscles was not possible macroscopically or virtually by MR imaging. In the dorsal aspect, the onion‐like muscle layers of the VL, TVI, and VI fuse to a hardly separable muscle mass indicating that these muscles work in conjunction to produce knee extension torque when knee joint action is performed. Clin. Anat. 30:1096–1102, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

MR findings of the spinal paraganglioma : report of three cases

Extraadrenal paragangliomas involving the spine is less common and usually takes the form of intradural compression of the cauda equina. The authors report three cases of spinal paragangliomas resulting in extradural spinal cord compression and their MR findings. The MR imaging revealed a well-demarcated extradural mass with low to intermediate signal intensity on T1-weighted images and intermediate to high signal intensity on T2-weighted images compared to paravertebral muscles. After Gd-DTPA administration, heterogeneous and intense enhancement was found. Multiple punctate and serpiginous structures of signal void due to high-velocity flow were noted around and within the tumors on all sequences. In one case, the signal void structures were well corresponded with feeding arteries on angiography. These may be the characteristic findings of the extraadrenal paraganglioma involving the spine.     

Magnetic resonance imaging study of cross-sectional area of the cervical extensor musculature in an asymptomatic cohort

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can be regarded as the gold standard for muscle imaging; however there is little knowledge about in vivo morphometric features of neck extensor muscles in healthy subjects and how muscle size alters across vertebral segments. It is not known how body size and activity levels may influence neck muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) or if the muscles differ from left and right. The purpose of this study was to establish relative CSA (rCSA) data for the cervical extensor musculature with a reliable MRI measure in asymptomatic females within a defined age range and to determine if side-side and vertebral level differences exist. MRI of the cervical spine was performed on 42 asymptomatic female subjects within the age range of 18-45. The rCSA values for the cervical extensor muscles were measured from axial T1-weighted images. We found significant side-side rCSA differences for the rectus capitis posterior minor, major (P < 0.001), multifidus (P = 0.002), and the semispinalis cervicis/capitis (P = 0.001, P < 0.001). There were significant vertebral level differences in rCSA of the semispinalis cervicis/capitis, multifidus, splenius capitis, and upper trapezius (P < 0.001). Activity levels were shown to impact on the size of semispinalis cervicis (P = 0.027), semispinalis capitis (P = 0.003), and the splenius capitis (P = 0.004). In conclusion, measuring differences in neck extensor muscle rCSA with MRI in an asymptomatic population provides the basis for future study investigating relationships between muscular atrophy and symptoms in patients suffering from persistent neck pain. Clin.     

Hierarchical model-based tracking of cervical vertebrae from dynamic biplane radiographs

We present a novel approach for automatically, accurately and reliably determining the 3D motion of the cervical spine from a series of stereo or biplane radiographic images. These images could be acquired through a variety of different imaging hardware configurations. We follow a hierarchical, anatomically-aware, multi-bone approach that takes into account the complex structure of cervical vertebrae and inter-vertebrae overlapping, as well as the temporal coherence in the imaging series. These significant innovations improve the speed, accuracy, reliability and flexibility of the tracking process. Evaluation on cervical data shows that the approach is as accurate (average precision 0.3 mm and 1°) as the expert human-operator driven method that was previously state of the art. However, unlike the previously used method, the hierarchical approach is automatic and robust; even in the presence of implanted hardware. Therefore, the method has solid potential for clinical use to evaluate the effectiveness of surgical interventions.     

颈动脉间隙及其占位性病变的影像研究

目的:探讨正常颈动脉间隙的影像特点及比较CT、MRI对颈动脉间隙占位性病变的诊断及鉴别诊断价值。方法:分析3例正常男性颈动脉间隙的影像特点;回顾15例经手术病理证实的颈动脉间隙占位性病变,CT检查11例,MRI检查4例。结果:颈部MRI轴位图像上可清楚显示颈深筋膜各间隙的形态和毗邻关系。神经鞘瘤可显示囊变和钙化,MRI显示T2WI呈明亮高信号为其特征。颈动脉体瘤增强后肿瘤显著强化。鳃裂囊肿有其相对固定的发病部位,增强扫描无强化。淋巴管瘤显示分层液面现象为其特征,MRI可显示瘤内脂肪、出血和纤维分隔等不同成分,对鉴别诊断有一定价值。不同来源的肿瘤与颈内、外动脉或颈总动脉和颈内静脉的位置关系有解剖上的相关性,有利于准确的定位和鉴别诊断。结论:颈深部疾病影像检查应首选MRI。根据病变所在的解剖平面、强化扫描特点及其与颈部血管的关系,CT和MRI对大部分颈动脉鞘病变有定性诊断及鉴别价值。     

Measurement of the Vertebral Canal Dimensions of the Neck of the Rat with a Comparison to the Human

The aim of this study was to determine the dimensions of the vertebral canal in the neck of the rat, because little is known about the morphology of the rat's cervical spine. A comparison then was made to the vertebral canal in the neck of the human. In part 1 of this study, we determined the precision of three different methods to measure the vertebral canal. The error (coefficient of variation) in these methods was found to range from 1 to 8%. In part 2, we used a computer‐based system to measure digital images of the vertebra and determined the anterior to posterior and the transverse vertebral canal dimensions in the neck of 19 young adult Sprague‐Dawley rats. The anterior to posterior dimension of the vertebral canal was greatest at the upper cervical (C1–C2) level and progressively decreased in the more caudal segments (C3–T1). The transverse dimension was greatest at the atlas (C1) vertebra and smallest at the axis (C2) vertebra with a steady increase in the transverse dimension with more caudal segments and a maximum transverse dimension at the level of the C6 and C7 vertebra. This study has demonstrated that the vertebral canal in the neck of young adult rats is similar in some regards to that of human. However, there are clear differences between the rat and human. These may be associated with differences in the morphology of the spinal cord or postural differences such as the cervicothoracic lordosis in bipeds compared with that in quadrupeds. Anat Rec, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Senile plaques do not induce susceptibility effects in T2*-weighted MR microscopic images

Senile plaques are the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. They typically range from 16 to 150 microm in size with most less than 25 microm. Mechanisms by which they might affect MR contrast and thus be made visible in this imaging modality are still unknown. Plausibility studies suggested that they might have a different magnetic susceptibility than surrounding tissue. A large difference would cause the plaque and a relatively large volume of adjacent tissue to be hypo-intense in T2*-weighted MRI scans, thus causing them to appear larger than their actual sizes and perhaps visible even when their size is below the nominal resolution limit of the imaging experiment. To evaluate this hypothesis, formalin-fixed superior temporal gyrus samples obtained from two Alzheimer's disease and two control subjects were imaged using magnetic resonance microscopy at 11.7 T. Three dimensional T2*-weighted gradient echo images were recorded with an isotropic resolution of 23.4 microm. The imaging protocol was especially sensitive to susceptibility effects. Samples were then stained for amyloid and/or iron deposits. Hypo- and hyper-intense structures were clearly visible in MR images from all samples. Hyper-intense structures reflected fixative penetration within the vascular system. Almost all the hypo-intense structures were blood vessels. Their hypo-intense profile was probably caused by iron deposits associated with the cell aggregates that they contained. Only one hypo-intense spot could be matched with a plaque and this was one of the largest plaques in our samples. The remainder of the several hundred plaques were not visible in MR images. In histological slices the senile plaques were often larger than small blood vessels that were visible in the MR images. This suggests that susceptibility effects are not associated with senile plaques and do not provide a mechanism to differentiate them from surrounding tissue.