硒酸锌金属自显影技术检测游离锌离子在小鼠肾脏的分布

目的研究游离锌离子在小鼠肾脏的定位分布。方法应用硒酸锌金属自显影技术(ZnSeAMG)检测小鼠肾脏内的游离锌离子分布。结果游离锌离子在肾脏内分布广泛,皮质中有大量AMG反应阳性颗粒,髓质中的AMG阳性颗粒较少。其中,近曲小管、远曲小管、近直小管和远直小管上皮细胞近腔侧均分布有大量的棕黑色AMG阳性颗粒,肾小体、细段和集合管上皮细胞中AMG阳性颗粒较少。结论小鼠肾脏内含有丰富的游离锌离子,锌离子可能参与肾脏的功能。     

DMT1在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层老年斑内的定位研究

目的研究二价金属离子转运体1(divalent metal transporter 1,DMT1)在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层内的定位分布,探讨DMT1异常表达影响脑铁代谢平衡从而参与AD发病的可能机制。方法应用免疫组织化学方法观察DMT1在9月龄APPsw/PS1小鼠大脑皮层的阳性分布;应用免疫荧光双标技术和共聚焦激光扫描显微镜观察DMT1蛋白和β淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid peptide,Aβ)在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层老年斑内的一致性分布和位置关系。结果APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层老年斑内均有DMT1阳性表达;DMT1和Aβ免疫双标发现DMT1免疫阳性产物与Aβ共存于老年斑,二者分布具有一致性。结论DMT1在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层老年斑内大量表达,其分布与Aβ具有一致性,提示DMT1可能参与AD脑内Aβ沉积和老年斑形成。     

游离锌离子在小鼠视网膜的定位研究

目的研究游离锌离子在小鼠视网膜的定位分布。方法应用ZnSe金属自显影技术(AMG)检测硒酸钠注射40 m in后小鼠视网膜内的锌离子。结果注射硒酸钠40 m in后发现游离锌离子主要分布于小鼠视网膜的色素上皮细胞层、光感受器的内节、外核层、外网层、内核层、内网层和神经节细胞层。在色素上皮细胞层、光感受器的内节和内核层与内网层交界处AMG阳性反应最为明显,在光感受器外节和神经纤维层几乎没有AMG阳性反应产物。结论小鼠视网膜内锌离子,在视网膜神经元视觉信息的传导和形成过程中可能起着重要作用。     

ZnT3与Aβ在APP/PS1转基因小鼠脑血管及脉络丛的一致性分布

目的研究锌转运蛋白3(Zinc Transporter 3,ZnT3)与β-淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid,Aβ)在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑血管壁及脉络丛上皮的定位分布,探讨ZnT3影响脑锌平衡从而参与AD发病的可能机制。方法应用免疫荧光技术和共聚焦激光扫描显微镜观察ZnT3和Aβ在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑血管壁及脉络丛上皮的共存情况。结果APP/PS1转基因小鼠侧脑室及第三、四脑室的脉络丛上皮细胞均呈ZnT3和Aβ染色阳性,二者共同表达于上皮细胞的胞质内,而细胞核未见任何着色。在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层中,几乎所有Aβ阳性的血管壁上均有ZnT3的表达,二者的分布同样具有一致性。结论ZnT3与Aβ在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑血管及脉络丛上皮的一致性分布,提示ZnT3可能参与Aβ在大脑血管及脉络丛上皮的沉积。     

硒酸锌金属自显影技术检测游离锌离子在小鼠卵巢的分布

目的研究游离锌离子在小鼠卵巢的定位分布。方法应用硒酸锌金属自显影技术(ZnSeAMG)检测小鼠卵巢内的游离锌离子分布。结果游离锌离子在卵巢内分布广泛,在原始卵泡、初级卵泡、次级卵泡、闭锁卵泡以及间质细胞中都有大量棕黑色的AMG染色颗粒。结论小鼠卵巢内含有丰富的游离锌离子,锌离子可能参与了卵泡的发育以及性激素的合成。     

BDNF在APP/PS1转基因小鼠皮层和海马内的表达及其对学习记忆能力的影响

目的:探究脑源性神经生长因子(BDNF)在野生型小鼠和APP/PS1双转基因小鼠大脑内的表达变化及其对学习记忆能力的影响。方法:选择野生型小鼠和APP/PS1双转基因小鼠作为研究对象,刚果红染色标记Aβ斑,TUNEL法检测细胞凋亡,采用免疫荧光和Western blot方法检测BDNF在野生型和APP/PS1双转基因小鼠皮层和海马内的表达,Morris水迷宫检测小鼠的空间学习记忆能力。结果:APP/PS1双转基因小鼠皮层和海马区都形成Aβ斑,且12月龄小鼠Aβ斑的数量多于6月龄(P0.05)。12月龄APP/PS1双转基因小鼠皮层和海马区神经元凋亡的数量多于野生型小鼠(P0.01)。野生型小鼠皮层和海马区BDNF的表达量高于APP/PS1双转基因小鼠(P0.01)。水迷宫检测显示,APP/PS1双转基因小鼠的逃逸潜伏期长于野生型小鼠,而60 s内穿越平台所位象限的次数少于野生型小鼠,且游泳轨迹杂乱无章。结论:APP/PS1双转基因型小鼠皮层和海马区BDNF的表达量低于野生型小鼠,并伴随着神经元凋亡的增加,且空间学习记忆能力降低。这些结果提示APP/PS1双转基因小鼠学习记忆能力的降低可能与BDNF表达减少导致神经元凋亡增加有关,这也许是阿尔茨海默病的病理机制之一。     

嗅鞘细胞移植入淀粉样前体蛋白转基因小鼠脑内降低β淀粉样蛋白沉积

目的 观察嗅鞘细胞移植入淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)转基因小鼠脑内后的存活和迁移状况及其对模型β淀粉样蛋白沉积的作用,以进一步探索嗅鞘细胞移植对阿尔茨海默病的治疗效果.方法 取自发绿色荧光蛋白的新生3d龄增强型绿色荧光蛋白(EGFP)转基因小鼠,体外分离培养嗅球嗅鞘细胞,在小鼠脑立体定位仪的固定下,参照AP小鼠脑立体定位图谱,将收集的嗅鞘细胞移植入APP转基因小鼠脑内.移植1个月后,取脑组织冷冻切片,在双光子共焦显微镜下观察细胞存活和迁移状况并采集图像.移植1个月后,行荧光免疫组织化学和免疫印迹法检测淀粉样蛋白沉积,每组4只.结果 嗅鞘细胞移植入APP转基因小鼠脑内存活良好,并以移植点为中心向外迁移,部分绿色荧光细胞呈现成血管现象,移植之后APP转基因小鼠脑内的β淀粉样蛋白沉积减少,APP表达明显减少(P<0.05).结论 嗅鞘细胞对减少APP转基因小鼠脑内淀粉样蛋白沉积有一定帮助.     

ZnT7及游离锌离子在小鼠室管膜和脉络丛细胞的分布

目的 研究锌转运体7（ZnT7）和游离锌离子在小鼠脊髓室管膜和脉络丛上皮细胞中的分布.方法 应用ZnSe金属自显影技术（AMG）检测硒酸钠注射1.5h后小鼠脊髓室管膜细胞及脑室脉络丛上皮细胞的游离锌离子;应用免疫组织化学SABC法检测小鼠脊髓室管膜细胞及脑室脉络丛上皮细胞中ZnT7的表达.结果 光镜下观察AMG染色的切片,小鼠脊髓室管膜细胞及脑室脉络丛上皮细胞中均有游离锌离子的分布;免疫组织化学结果表明,脊髓室管膜细胞及脉络丛上皮细胞中均有ZnT7的表达,且与游离锌离子分布区域基本一致.结论 锌离子可能在脊髓室管膜细胞及脉络丛上皮细胞内发挥重要作用,脊髓室管膜细胞及脉络丛上皮细胞可能在脑脊液锌转运过程中发挥重要的作用.     

APP转基因拟痴呆小鼠模型脑内α synuclein的增龄改变

目的： 观察不同时程APP转基因拟痴呆小鼠脑内α synuclein的改变，以探讨α synuclein在AD发病中的作用。方法: 拟AD动物模型为4 月龄、10月龄和16月龄APP695V717I转基因小鼠；同背景同月龄C57BL/6J小鼠设为正常对照组。表达谱基因芯片、RT PCR方法检测皮层、海马mRNA表达改变；Western blotting、免疫组化法检测蛋白表达的改变。结果: α-synuclein mRNA表达在不同时程APP转基因小鼠脑内均明显增多。α-synuclein蛋白表达在早期4月龄APP转基因小鼠即显著上调，10月龄继续增多，16月龄继续上调并形成蛋白的异常聚集。结论: APP转基因小鼠脑内AD老年斑非Aβ主要成分α-synuclein表达明显增多，并随增龄不断加重，可能是模型小鼠学习记忆障碍及AD发病的重要因素。     

Altered levels and distribution of IGF-II/M6P receptor and lysosomal enzymes in mutant APP and APP + PS1 transgenic mouse brains

The insulin-like growth factor-II/mannose-6-phosphate (IGF-II/M6P) receptor participates in the trafficking of lysosomal enzymes from the trans-Golgi network or the cell surface to lysosomes. In Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains, marked up-regulation of the lysosomal system in vulnerable neuronal populations has been correlated with altered metabolic functions. To establish whether IGF-II/M6P receptors and lysosomal enzymes are altered in the brain of transgenic mice harboring different familial AD mutations, we measured the levels and distribution of the receptor and lysosomal enzymes cathepsins B and D in select brain regions of transgenic mice overexpressing either mutant presenilin 1 (PS1; PS1(M146L+L286V)), amyloid precursor protein (APP; APP(KM670/671NL+V717F)) or APP+PS1 (APP(KM670/671NL+V717F)+PS1(M146L+L286V)) transgenes. Our results revealed that levels and expression of the IGF-II/M6P receptor and lysosomal enzymes are increased in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of APP and APP+PS1, but not in PS1, transgenic mouse brains compared with wild-type controls. The changes were more prominent in APP+PS1 than in APP single transgenic mice. Additionally, all beta-amyloid-containing neuritic plaques in the hippocampal and cortical regions of APP and APP+PS1 transgenic mice were immunopositive for both lysosomal enzymes, whereas only a subset of the plaques displayed IGF-II/M6P receptor immunoreactivity. These results suggest that up-regulation of the IGF-II/M6P receptor and lysosomal enzymes in neurons located in vulnerable regions reflects an altered functioning of the endosomal-lysosomal system which may be associated with the increased intracellular and/or extracellular A beta deposits observed in APP and APP+PS1 transgenic mouse brains.     

Locus coeruleus degeneration exacerbates olfactory deficits in APP/PS1 transgenic mice

Neuronal loss in the locus coeruleus (LC) is 1 of the early pathological events in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Projections of noradrenergic neurons of the LC innervate the olfactory bulb (OB). Because olfactory deficits have been reported in early AD, we investigated the effect of induced LC degeneration on olfactory memory and discrimination in an AD mouse model. LC degeneration was induced by treating APP/PS1 mice with N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-bromo-benzylamine (DSP4) repeatedly between 3 and 12 months of age. Short term odor retention, ability for spontaneous habituation to an odor, and spontaneous odor discrimination were assessed by behavioral tests. DSP4 treatment in APP/PS1 mice resulted in an exacerbation of short term olfactory memory deficits and more discrete weakening of olfactory discrimination abilities, suggesting that LC degeneration contributes to olfactory deficits observed in AD. Importantly, DSP4 treatment also increased amyloid β (Aβ) deposition in the olfactory bulb of APP/PS1 mice, which correlated with olfactory memory, not with discrimination deficits.     

Amyloid plaques arise from zinc-enriched cortical layers in APP/PS1 transgenic mice and are paradoxically enlarged with dietary zinc deficiency

The ZnT3 zinc transporter is uniquely expressed in cortical glutamatergic synapses where it organizes zinc release into the synaptic cleft and mediates beta-amyloid deposition in transgenic mice. We studied the association of zinc in plaques in relation to cytoarchitectural zinc localization in the APP/PS1 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. The effects of low dietary zinc for 3 months upon brain pathology were also studied. We determined that synaptic zinc distribution within cortical layers is paralleled by amyloid burden, which is heaviest for both in layers 2-3 and 5. ZnT3 immunoreactivity is prominent in dystrophic neurites within amyloid plaques. Low dietary zinc caused a significant 25% increase in total plaque volume in Alzheimer's mice using stereological measures. The level of oxidized proteins in brain tissue did not changed in animals on a zinc-deficient diet compared with controls. No obvious changes were observed in the autometallographic pattern of zinc-enriched terminals in the neocortex or in the expression levels of zinc transporters, zinc importers or metallothioneins. A small decrease in plasma zinc induced by the low-zinc diet was consistent with the subclinical zinc deficiency that is common in older human populations. While the mechanism remains uncertain, our findings indicate that subclinical zinc deficiency may be a risk factor for Alzheimer's pathology.     

Genotype-related changes of ganglioside composition in brain regions of transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease

In this study, brain gangliosides of different transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) were analyzed and compared with age-matched wild-type mice. Gangliosides were analyzed in cerebral cortex, a region with extensive Aβ plaques, and cerebellum, a non-vulnerable region with no Aβ containing plaques. There was a marked increase in simple gangliosides GM2 and GM3 only within the cortex of all mice expressing APP^SL. Additionally, loss of complex “a” gangliosides (GT1a, GD1a and GM1) was recorded in APP/PS1Ki model, whereas in APP^SL and APP/PS1 mice, the complex “b” gangliosides (GQ1b, GT1b and GD1b) moderately decreased. Surprisingly, expression of either mutant PS1^M146L or PS1 mutant FAD (Ki model) alone tended to lower the levels of both GM2 and GM3 within the cortex. Conversely, only slight changes of the ganglioside pattern were found in the cerebellum. Because ganglioside alterations occurring in APP transgenic mice were similar to those observed in human AD brain, these transgenic models would represent valuable tools to further investigate the role of altered ganglioside metabolism in the pathogenesis of AD.     

Neuronal gap junctions in the mouse main olfactory bulb: morphological analyses on transgenic mice

In the present study we analyzed the structural features of extraglomerular gap junction-forming processes in mouse olfactory bulb electron microscopically. This work complements a previous study in which we analyzed the structural features of neuronal gap junction-forming processes within the glomerulus itself. Furthermore we examined connexin 36 expressing cells in the mouse olfactory bulb by analyzing transgenic mice in which the connexin 36 coding sequence was replaced with histological reporters. In extraglomerular regions, the mitral/tufted cell somata, dendrites and axon hillocks made gap junctions and mixed synapses with interneuronal processes. These gap junctions and synapses were associated with various types of interneuronal processes, including a particular type of sheet-like or calyx-like process contacting the somata or large dendrites of mitral/tufted cells. In the olfactory bulbs of the transgenic mice, connexin 36 was expressed in mitral cells, tufted cells, presumed granule cells and periglomerular cells. Multiple immunofluorescent labelings further revealed that presumed interneurons expressing connexin 36 in the periglomerular region rarely expressed calbindin, calretinin or tyrosine hydroxylase and are likely to comprise a chemically uncharacterized class of neurons. Similarly, interneurons expressing connexin 36 in the granule cell layer were rarely positive for calretinin, which was expressed in numerous presumed granule cells in the mouse main olfactory bulb. In summary, these findings revealed that mitral/tufted cells make gap junctions with diverse types of neurons; in the glomeruli gap junction-forming interneuronal processes originated from some types of periglomerular cells but others from a hitherto uncharacterized neuron type(s), and in the extraglomerular region gap-junction forming processes originate mainly from a subset of cells within the granule cell layer.     

Morphological characteristics of dopaminergic immunoreactive neurons in the olfactory bulb of the common marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus)

The present study describes the distribution of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive (IR) elements in the olfactory bulb of the common marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus), a primate species by immunohistochemistry. We identified six layers of the olfactory bulb of the common marmoset monkey in sections stained with cresyl violet. The majority of TH-IR cells were found in the glomerular layer. A few TH-IR cells were present in the external plexiform and granule cell layers. TH-IR fibers were identified in all layers of the olfactory bulb. The density of these nerve fibers was high in the internal plexiform and granule cell layers. The results in the olfactory bulb of the common marmoset monkey are generally similar to previous reports in some mammals. These data suggest that TH in the olfactory bulb of the common marmoset monkey may play a role in olfactory transmission via the glomeruli like in other mammals.     

Origin and migration of interneurons of the olfactory bulb in the musk shrew,Suncus murinus

The olfactory bulb of the musk shrew, Suncus murinus, is characterized by the presence of various interneurons. Our previous report (Kakuta et al., 2001) demonstrated that positive immunoreactions for calretinin were observed in periglomerular and perinidal cells in the glomerular layer, small ovoid neurons in the external plexiform layer, and granule cells in the granule cell layer of the olfactory bulb in the musk shrew aged 1 to 5 weeks, in addition to calretinin-immunoreactive bipolar cells distributed in the anterior subependymal layer and in each layer of the olfactory bulb. To examine the origin and migration of interneurons of the olfactory bulb, we labeled generated cells by injecting 28-day-old musk shrews with 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU), and detected the labeled progeny cells that survived after several intervals. BrdU-labeled cells originated in the subependymal layer around the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle, and rostrally migrated in the subependymal layer from the anterior wall of the lateral ventricle into the center of the olfactory bulb, where they radially migrated into the granule cell layer, external plexiform layer, and glomerular layer. It took 2 days to migrate rostrally in the subependymal layer from the anterior lateral ventricle to the center of the olfactory bulb, and 2 to 6 days to migrate radially from the bulbar subependymal layer into the three layers mentioned. The rate of rostralward migration of the labeled cells was estimated to be 38 microm/h, while that of radial migration, 7 to 25 microm/h. The present BrdU-labeling study, together with our previous immunohistochemical study (Kakuta et al., 2001), indicates that anterior subependymal cells differentiate into granule cells in the granule cell layer, into Van Gehuchten cells in the external plexiform layer, and into periglomerular and perinidal cells in the glomerular layer of the olfactory bulb in the musk shrew.     

Rapid detection of Abeta deposits in APP transgenic mice by Hoechst 33342

The accumulation of beta-amyloid (Abeta) is the earliest event seen in the neocortex and hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Transgenic mouse models of Abeta deposition are excellent tools for validating pharmacological therapies for reducing Abeta burden. Sensitive and rapid probes should be needed for detecting Abeta plaques ex vivo and in vivo in the transgenic mouse models. However, a thioflavin derivative, Pittsburgh Compound-B (PIB), which is a successful PET tracer for detecting Abeta plaques in AD brains, does not visualize Abeta plaques in APP and PS1/APP transgenic mice. Here, we report that Hoechst 33342, a cell-permeable fluorescent probe for staining DNA and nuclei, also detects Abeta plaques in APP Tg mouse. These findings could allow us to rapidly detect Abeta plaques in AD mouse models, and to develop improved compounds for detecting Abeta plaques in vivo in mouse models.     

Hippocampal neuron loss exceeds amyloid plaque load in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

According to the "amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease," beta-amyloid is the primary driving force in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Despite the development of many transgenic mouse lines developing abundant beta-amyloid-containing plaques in the brain, the actual link between amyloid plaques and neuron loss has not been clearly established, as reports on neuron loss in these models have remained controversial. We investigated transgenic mice expressing human mutant amyloid precursor protein APP751 (KM670/671NL and V717I) and human mutant presenilin-1 (PS-1 M146L). Stereologic and image analyses revealed substantial age-related neuron loss in the hippocampal pyramidal cell layer of APP/PS-1 double-transgenic mice. The loss of neurons was observed at sites of Abeta aggregation and surrounding astrocytes but, most importantly, was also clearly observed in areas of the parenchyma distant from plaques. These findings point to the potential involvement of more than one mechanism in hippocampal neuron loss in this APP/PS-1 double-transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.