Attitudes,beliefs and norms relating to contraceptive use among young migrant and non-migrant adults in urban Dar es Salaam,Tanzania

The young urban population of Tanzania is growing rapidly, primarily due to rural-urban migration. More information is needed on the challenges facing young adult urban women and men in using family planning (FP). The purpose of this study is to identify perceptions, interpersonal and familial attitudes, and sociocultural norms regarding FP among young adults (18–25 years) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, comparing responses by sex, marital status and migration status. We conducted 12 focus groups with young adult men and women (n = 74) in Dar es Salaam in December 2009. Participants knew of modern contraceptive methods, but had serious concerns about side effects. Single men and women preferred condoms. Female migrants stated that traditional methods were ineffective, yet commonly used in rural areas. Men's desires for more children frequently led female migrants not to use FP, while many married long-term residents used FP discreetly. Single women sometimes received the support of their parents/boyfriends to access and use contraception. Findings highlight differences in experiences among young adult men and women based on their migrant and marital status at the individual, interpersonal and normative levels. Future efforts to promote FP should engage existing social support systems and cultivate new ones in response to barriers.     

Scaling up postabortion contraceptive service--results from a study conducted among women having unwanted pregnancies in urban and rural Tanzania

INTRODUCTION: It is well recognized that unwanted pregnancies and unsafe abortion are significant public health problems in sub-Saharan Africa. At the International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo in 1994, postabortion care was prioritized as a means to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality associated with unsafe abortion. However, only a few postabortion care programs have been implemented and most of them have been confined to urban settings. The present study describes the magnitude of the problem of unwanted pregnancies among women with incomplete abortion in urban and rural Tanzania and evaluates the outcome of a postabortion care intervention. METHODS: Data were collected among 781 women admitted with incomplete abortion in Dar es Salaam region (urban Tanzania) and 575 women in Kagera region (rural Tanzania). RESULTS: Sixty-seven percent of the women in urban Tanzania and 42% in rural Tanzania stated that their pregnancy was unwanted. Contraceptive acceptance among women with unwanted pregnancies was high; 93% in urban Tanzania and 71% in rural Tanzania left with a contraceptive method. CONCLUSION: The high proportion of women with unwanted pregnancies in urban and rural Tanzania underlines the need of scaling up postabortion contraceptive service.     

Effect of Improved access to Antiretroviral Therapy on clinical characteristics of patients enrolled in the HIV care and treatment clinic,at Muhimbili National Hospital (MNH), Dar es Salaam,Tanzania

Background  

Sub-Saharan Africa has been severely affected by the HIV and AIDS pandemic. Global efforts at improving care and treatment has included scaling up use of antiretroviral therapy (ART). In Tanzania, HIV care and treatment program, including the provision of free ART started in 2004 with a pilot program at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam. This study describes the socio-demographic and clinical features of patients enrolled at the care and treatment clinic at MNH, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.     

Impact of measles outbreak response vaccination campaign in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania

We assessed the impact of a measles outbreak response vaccination campaign (ORV) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Age-specific incidence rates were calculated before and after the ORV. Incidence rate ratios for the two time periods were compared and used to estimate expected cases and deaths prevented by ORV. The ratio of measles incidence rates in the age groups targeted and not targeted by ORV decreased from 5.8 prior to ORV to 1.8 (p < 0.0001) after; 506 measles cases and 18 measles deaths were likely averted. These results support the need for revised recommendations concerning ORV in general settings in Africa.     

Maternal and neonatal colonisation of group B streptococcus at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: prevalence, risk factors and antimicrobial resistance

Background  

Group B streptococcus (GBS), which asymptomatically colonises the vaginal and rectal areas of women, is the leading cause of septicemia, meningitis and pneumonia in neonates. In Tanzania no studies have been done on GBS colonisation of pregnant women and neonates. This study was conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania to determine the prevalence of GBS colonisation among pregnant women, the neonatal colonisation rate and the antimicrobial susceptibility, thus providing essential information to formulate a policy for treatment and prevention regarding perinatal GBS diseases.     

Balancing collective responsibility,individual opportunities and risks: a qualitative study on how police officers reason around volunteering in an HIV vaccine trial in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania

Background  

Results from HIV vaccine trials on potential volunteers will contribute to global efforts to develop an HIV vaccine. The purpose of this study among police officers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, was to explore the underlying reasons that induce people to enrol in an HIV vaccine trial.     

Evidence of a substantial decline in prevalence of HIV-1 infection among pregnant women: data from 1995 to 2003 in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence trends of HIV-1 infection among pregnant women seen between 1995 and 2003 at public antenatal clinics (ANC) in the city of Dar es Salaam. DESIGN AND SETTINGS: Cross-sectional studies among pregnant women at selected antenatal clinics who were offered HIV testing as part of research and service programmes to prevent vertical transmission of HIV infection and improve pregnancy outcomes. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Consenting women gave blood for HIV antibody testing using a sequential ELISA protocol. Sociodemographic information was collected using structured interviews. RESULTS: In total, 62% of women attending the antenatal clinics gave informed consent for HIV testing and 51,076 had final confirmed results available for this analysis. Women below 20 years of age had the lowest HIV seroprevalence. The HIV-1 prevalence declined from 14.2% in 1995 to 10.6% in 2003. CONCLUSION: There is a definite substantial decline in prevalence of HIV-1 infection among pregnant women in Dar es Salaam following ongoing interventions, which have been carried out in Tanzania. There is a need to further strengthen these interventions.     

The influence of alcohol outlet density and advertising on youth drinking in urban Tanzania

Despite the detrimental effects of alcohol on adolescent health, high rates of alcohol use are reported among Tanzanian youth. We conducted systematic community mapping and participatory group activities with 177 adolescents in Dar es Salaam to explore how alcohol outlet density and advertising may contribute to adolescent drinking in urban Tanzania. Findings revealed a high density of alcohol-selling outlets and outdoor advertisements. The abundance of alcohol-related cues, including their close proximity to places where youth congregate, may facilitate and increase adolescent alcohol use in Tanzania. Participants recommended several changes to the alcohol environment to reduce adolescent drinking. Structural interventions that reduce adolescents' access and exposure to alcohol are needed in Tanzania.     

Community-based monitoring of safe motherhood in the United Republic of Tanzania

OBJECTIVE: To examine the progress made towards the Safe Motherhood Initiative goals in three areas of the United Republic of Tanzania during the 1990s. METHODS: Maternal mortality in the United Republic of Tanzania was monitored by sentinel demographic surveillance of more than 77,000 women of reproductive age, and by prospective monitoring of mortality in the following locations; an urban site; a wealthier rural district; and a poor rural district. The observation period for the rural districts was 1992-99 and 1993-99 for the urban site. FINDINGS: During the period of observation, the proportion of deaths of women of reproductive age (15-49 years) due to maternal causes (PMDF) compared with all causes was between 0.063 and 0.095. Maternal mortality ratios (MMRatios) were 591-1099 and maternal mortality rates (MMRates; maternal deaths per 100,000 women aged 15-49 years) were 43.1-123.0. MMRatios in surveillance areas were substantially higher than estimates from official, facility-based statistics. In all areas, the MMRates in 1999 were substantially lower than at the start of surveillance (1992 for rural districts, 1993 for the urban area), although trends during the period were statistically significant at the 90% level only in the urban site. At the community level, an additional year of education for household heads was associated with a 62% lower maternal death rate, after controlling for community-level variables such as the proportion of home births and occupational class. CONCLUSION: Educational level was a major predictor of declining MMRates. Even though rates may be decreasing, they remained high in the study areas. The use of sentinel registration areas may be a cost-effective and accurate way for developing countries to monitor mortality indicators and causes, including for maternal mortality.     

Anaemia is a major public health problem in Tanzania

The purpose of the study was to investigate the prevalence ofanaemia in adults in rural and urban areas of Tanzania withparticular respect to males. A total of 8579 subjects aged 15years and over were investigated in 8'rural villages from 3regions and another 1458 in 2 urban areas in Dar es Salaam.Of males, 29.8% were anaemic (Hb<13 g/dl) in the most prosperousrural area, 47.9% in the city, and 73.5% and 79.9% in the twopoorer rural areas. In the latter, 25.1% and 26.3% had valuesbelow 11 g/dl. Equivalent values for females were 25.8%, 62.6%(urban), 80.5% and 80.1% (Hb<12 g/dl) with 2.1%, 16.5% (urban),16.9% and 26.8% less than 10 g/dl. Pregnant women (n = 257)had significantly lower Hb levels than non-pregnant females.In males anaemia was more prevalent in the old. The prevalenceof anaemia was higher in the poorer rural areas than in mostpreviously reported studies in Africa. In particular our resultsemphasize that anaemia is a major problem in males in Tanzaniaand could have a significant economic and health impact.     

北京市海淀区老年人1987～1994年损伤与中毒死亡分析

对北京市海淀区1987～1994年60岁及以上老年人的全部死亡报告资料进行了分析。结果发现，老年损伤与中毒死亡率和在全死因中的构成呈下降趋势。在损伤与中毒死亡原因分析中发现，意外跌落仍是导致老年损伤与中毒死亡的主要原因，但在死因构成中有所下降。而交通事故、自杀和意外中毒有上升的势头。因此，积极开展老年损伤与中毒的预防工作是十分必要的。     

An HIV/AIDS knowledge scale for adolescents: item response theory analyses based on data from a study in South Africa and Tanzania

A 14-item human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome knowledge scale was used among school students in 80 schools in 3 sites in Sub-Saharan Africa (Cape Town and Mankweng, South Africa, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania). For each item, an incorrect or don't know response was coded as 0 and correct response as 1. Exploratory factor analyses based on polychoric correlations showed two separate factors for all sites. Two-parameter item response theory (IRT) analysis (bifactorial multiple indicators multiple causes confirmatory factor analysis models) consistently showed a general first factor and a second 'method' factor. One single global latent variable seemed to sufficiently well capture most of the systematic variation in knowledge. Some items did not discriminate well between levels of the underlying knowledge latent variable and information values were highest for low levels of knowledge. The scale might be improved by adding items, in particular items that are more difficult to answer. Some differential item functioning effects related to site and socioeconomic status were identified. Scores on the latent knowledge variable were particularly low among females in Dar es Salaam and Mankweng, and were negatively associated with socioeconomic status. This study illustrates advantages of using IRT analysis instead of more conventional approaches to examining psychometric properties of knowledge scales.     

Abortions in a hospital setting: hidden realities in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

This study investigates the extent of unwanted pregnancy, the use of illegally induced abortion, and the attitudes toward and practice of contraception among women admitted to a hospital with the diagnosis of abortion in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. (In Tanzania, induced abortion is permitted only to save the mother's life.) A random sample of 300 women with early pregnancy loss admitted to Muhimbili Medical Centre, the teaching hospital in Dar es Salaam, were interviewed between September and November 1987, using a structured questionnaire. Among the 300 respondents, 155 said that their pregnancy had been unwanted: 94 of them presented with an illegally induced abortion and 61 with a spontaneous abortion. The number of spontaneous abortions of unwanted pregnancies increased with age and stability in a relationship. Having a small child to look after and having completed the family were the most common reasons for the pregnancy to be unwanted in this group. Induced abortion was more a problem of the young, unmarried woman. The 61 women with spontaneous abortion but unwanted pregnancy suggest that a much larger group of pregnant women continue to term with what are, at least initially, unwanted pregnancies--precisely the group of women family planning programs want to reach. The low prevalence of contraceptive use in this group indicates the failure of family planning clinics to motivate their target group. Recommendations are made for improved functioning of family planning clinics.     

Unintentional injury mortality in India, 2005: Nationally representative mortality survey of 1.1 million homes

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Unintentional injuries are an important cause of death in India. However, no reliable nationally representative estimates of unintentional injury deaths are available. Thus, we examined unintentional injury deaths in a nationally representative mortality survey. METHODS: Trained field staff interviewed a living relative of those who had died during 2001-03. The verbal autopsy reports were sent to two of the130 trained physicians, who independently assigned an ICD-10 code to each death. Discrepancies were resolved through reconciliation and adjudication. Proportionate cause specific mortality was used to produce national unintentional injury mortality estimates based on United Nations population and death estimates. RESULTS: In 2005, unintentional injury caused 648 000 deaths (7% of all deaths; 58/100 000 population). Unintentional injury mortality rates were higher among males than females, and in rural versus urban areas. Road traffic injuries (185 000 deaths; 29% of all unintentional injury deaths), falls (160 000 deaths, 25%) and drowning (73 000 deaths, 11%) were the three leading causes of unintentional injury mortality, with fire-related injury causing 5% of these deaths. The highest unintentional mortality rates were in those aged 70 years or older (410/100 000). CONCLUSIONS: These direct estimates of unintentional injury deaths in India (0.6 million) are lower than WHO indirect estimates (0.8 million), but double the estimates which rely on police reports (0.3 million). Importantly, they revise upward the mortality due to falls, particularly in the elderly, and revise downward mortality due to fires. Ongoing monitoring of injury mortality will enable development of evidence based injury prevention programs.     

Evaluation of the Quality of Life in Adult Cancer Survivors (QLACS) scale for long-term cancer survivors in a sample of breast cancer survivors

Background

The objective was to study whether a Kiswahili version of the OIDP (Oral Impacts on Daily Performance) inventory was valid and reliable for use in a population of older adults in urban and rural areas of Tanzania; and to assess the area specific prevalence, intensity and perceived causes of OIDP.

Method

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Pwani region and in Dar es Salaam in 2004/2005. A two-stage stratified cluster sample design was utilized. Information became available for 511 urban and 520 rural subjects (mean age 62.9 years) who were interviewed and participated in a full mouth clinical examination in their own homes.

Results

The Kiswahili version of the weighted OIDP inventory preserved the overall concept of the original English version. Cronbach's alpha was 0.83 and 0.90 in urban and rural areas, respectively, and the OIDP inventory varied systematically in the expected direction with self-reported oral health measures. The respective prevalence of oral impacts was 51.2% and 62.1% in urban and rural areas. Problems with eating was the performance reported most frequently (42.5% in urban, 55.1% in rural) followed by cleaning teeth (18.2% in urban, 30.6% in rural). More than half of the urban and rural residents with impacts had very little, little and moderate impact intensity. The most frequently reported causes of impacts were toothache and loose teeth.

Conclusion

The Kiswahili OIDP inventory had acceptable psychometric properties among non-institutionalized adults 50 years and above in Tanzania. The impacts affecting their performances were relatively common but not very severe.     

Seasonal changes in the larval populations of Aedes aegypti in two biotopes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

The seasonal dynamics of larval populations of Aedes aegypti was studied in two different biotopes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The first biotope was located on the Msasani peninsula on the coast 6 km north of Dar es Salaam, where A. aegypti breeds exclusively in coral rock holes. The population dynamics was studied during both the rainy and the dry season. Seasonal changes in the density of A. aegypti larvae depend primarily on variation in rainfall. The population of larvae dropped to zero only for a short time during the driest period while the adult population was maintained at a low level. The second biotope was in an automobile dump in a Dar es Salaam suburb, where A. aegypti breeds in artificial containers such as tires, automobile parts, tins, coconut shells, and snail shells. The greater part of the A. aegypti population of this biotope is maintained in the egg stage during the dry season. It serves as a focal point for breeding during the dry season: with the coming of the rains, the population expands into the surrounding residential areas. More than 70% of the larval population developed in tires, 20% in tins, 5% in coconut shells, and 1% in snail shells.     

湖北省麻城市1 984--2008年自杀死亡水平长期趋势分析

目的 探讨1984-2008年湖北省农村人口自杀死亡水平的特征及其长期变化趋势.方法 利用湖北省麻城市1984-2008年居民死因监测资料,回顾性分析不同性别、不同年龄人群的自杀死亡水平、自杀死亡占伤害的死因构成比及其变化趋势.结果 1984-2008年间该地人群的自杀死亡率呈下降趋势,自杀标化死亡率由1984年的113.29/10万降至2008年的20.11/10万,下降幅度为82.25%.自杀死亡占伤害死亡的构成比下降幅度不明显,自杀仍是该地人群伤害死亡的首要死因.自杀死亡者中,女性人数始终多于男性,女性所占的构成比在50%～60%之间波动;≥65岁老年人口所比例近年来明显增加,2008年老年人的构成比达46.81%.结论 自杀仍居该地人群,特别是女性人群伤害死因谱的首位.农村地区自杀预防的重点人群是女性和≥65岁老年人.

Abstract：

Objective To explore the characteristics and the long-term trend of suicidal deaths among the rural population in Hubei province. Methods Data on suicide deaths from 1984 through 2008 were released from Macheng Death Registration System and analyzed by year, gender and age. Results The suicidal death rates were decreasing during the last 25 years in Macheng city, with the standardized suicide mortality rapidly decreasing from 113.29/100 000 in 1984 to 20.11/100 000 in 2008. The proportion of suicide deaths in the total deaths caused by injuries were declining but not obviously. Suicide was still the leading cause of deaths among all the deaths due to injuries.Number of suicidal deaths among females was outnumbered the males during the last 25 years,representing 50%-60% in total suicide deaths annually. The proportion of suicide deaths among the elderly aged 65 and over had significantly increased in the recent years, which accounting for 46.81% of all the suicidal deaths in 2008. Conclusion Suicide remained the leading cause of injury deaths among the population in this area, especially in females. Attention should be paid to the females and the elderly aged 65 and over,in the rural areas.     

中国国民脑血管疾病死亡分析

目的 了解我国城市与农村居民脑血管疾病的危害与死亡特点。方法 根据我国居民病死伤原因资料，对不同性别、年龄、年代，及不同国家地区的脑血管病死亡水平进行对比分析。结果 脑血管病为我国居民主要死因之一，占全死因死亡的20％左右；其中以脑出血死亡为主，城市和农村脑出血死亡分别占脑血管病死亡的61％和73％。男性脑血管病死亡率高于女性；脑血管病死亡率随年龄增加而增加。结论 1989年以来，我国城市居民脑血管病死亡率呈下降趋势，农村则呈上升趋势。     

Maternal mortality in a rural district of southeastern Tanzania: an application of the sisterhood method

BACKGROUND: Deaths from maternal causes represent the leading cause of death among women of reproductive age in most developing countries. It is estimated that the highest risk occurs in Africa, with 20% of world births but 40% of the world maternal deaths. The level of maternal mortality is difficult to assess especially in countries without an adequate vital registration system. Indirect techniques are an attractive cost-effective tool to provide estimates of orders of magnitude for maternal mortality. METHOD: The level of maternal mortality estimated by the sisterhood method is presented for a rural district in the Morogoro Region of Southeastern Tanzania and the main causes of maternal death are studied. Information from region-specific data using the sisterhood method is compared to data from other sources. RESULTS: The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) was 448 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births (95%CI : 363-534 deaths per 100,000 live births). Maternal causes accounted for 19% of total mortality in this age group. One in 39 women who survive until reproductive age will die before age 50 due to maternal causes. The main cause of death provided by hospital data was puerperal sepsis (35%) and postpartum haemorrhage (17%); this is compatible with the main causes reported for maternal death in settings with high levels of maternal mortality, and similar to data for other regions in Tanzania. The sisterhood method provides data comparable with others, together with a cost-effective and reliable estimate for the determination of the magnitude of maternal mortality in the rural Kilombero District.     

Validation of the Kiswahili version of the SF-36 Health Survey in a representative sample of an urban population in Tanzania

The objective of this study was to assess the validity of a Kiswahili translation of the SF-36 Health Survey (SF-36) among an urban population in Tanzania, using the method of known-groups validation. People were randomly selected from a demographic surveillance system in Dar es Salaam. The representative sample consisted of 3,802 adults (15 years and older). Health status differences were hypothesized among groups, who differed in sex, age, socio-economic status and self-reported morbidity. Mean SF-36 scale scores were calculated and compared using t-test and ANOVA. Women had significantly lower mean SF-36 scale scores (indicating worse health status) than men on all scales and scores were lower for older people than younger on all domains, as hypothesized. On five of the eight SF-36 scales, means were higher for people of higher socio-economic status compared to those of lower socio-economic status. People who reported an illness within the previous 2 weeks scored significantly lower on all scales compared to those who were healthy, as did people who said they had a disability or a chronic condition.