氯胺酮预给药对体外谷氨酸诱导大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡的影响

目的探讨氯胺酮预给药对谷氨酸诱导大鼠小脑颗粒神经元(CGNs)凋亡的作用及信号转导机制。方法将原代培养的大鼠CGNs随机分为8组:C组:培养基中不加药液;G组:培养基中加入300 μmol/L谷氨酸;K1、K2、K3组:培养基中分别加入10、100、1 000μmol/L氯胺酮预先孵育1 h 后,再加入谷氨酸;LK3组:培养基中加入20μmol/L Ly294002,30min后加入1 000μmol/L.氯胺酮,1 h后加入谷氨酸;L组:培养基中加入Ly294002;LG组:培养基中加入Ly294002,30 min后加入谷氨酸。20 h后,用相差显微镜观察神经元形态学,Hoechst33258核染色后,观察凋亡CGNs;提取DNA行琼脂糖凝胶电泳分析,二乙酸荧光素染色法测定CGNs的存活率。结果谷氨酸可诱导大鼠CGNs凋亡。CGNs 存活率:与G组比较,C组、K1、K2、K3、L组升高幅度下降(P<0.05),LG组差异无统计学意义;C组与L组比较差异无统计学意义;LK3组低于K3组(P<0.01)。CGNs存活率(Y)与氯胺酮浓度(X)呈线性回归,回归方程为Y=0.202logX 0.2596,r3=0.919(P<0.01)。结论氯胺酮剂量依赖性地抑制谷氨酸诱导大鼠CGNs的凋亡,而PI3-K/AKT信号转导通路可能参与了其抗神经元凋亡作用。     

Immunostimulated glial cells potentiate glucose deprivation-induced death of cultured rat cerebellar granule cells.

The present study investigates whether immunostimulated glial expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase influences the glucose deprivation-induced death of rat cerebellar granule cells (CGC). CGC/glia cocultures were immunostimulated by interferon-gamma (200 U/ml) and lipopolysaccharides (1 microg/ml) and 2 days later were challenged by glucose deprivation. Neurotoxicity was assessed by measuring the release of lactate dehydrogenase. Neither a 2-h glucose deprivation nor a 2-day immunostimulation altered the viability of CGC. A 2-day immunostimulation, however, markedly potentiated the glucose deprivation-induced death of CGC. The increased death of glucose-deprived CGC after immunostimulation was mimicked by the nitric oxide (NO) releasing reagent 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1) and was partially prevented by the NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor N(G)-nitroarginine. The increased death of glucose-deprived CGC either after immunostimulation or by SIN-1 was not altered by various N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and non-NMDA receptor antagonists. Because superoxide dismutase and catalase, which remove superoxide anion, decreased the augmented death of glucose-deprived immunostimulated CGC, the reaction of NO with superoxide to form peroxynitrite appears to be implicated in the potentiated neurotoxicity. Our data indicate that immunostimulated glial cells potentiate the death of glucose-deprived neurons in part through the expression of inducible NOS but not through NMDA receptor activation. Potentiation of glucose-deprived CGC death by immunostimulated glial cells may be clinically implicated in the tendency of recurrent ischemic insults to be more severe and fatal than an initial ischemic insult.     

氯胺酮预先给药对缺氧复氧诱导大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡的影响

目的 研究氯胺酮预先给药对缺氧复氧诱导大鼠小脑颗粒神经元（CGNs）凋亡的影响，及磷脂酰肌醇-3-激酶（PI3K）／Akt通路在其中的作用。方法 出生7-8d的清洁级SD大鼠，雌雄不拘，体重15～20g；制备CGNs，培养的8d的CGNs随机分为5组，对照组（A组）、缺氧复氧组（B组）、氯胺酮预先给药组（C组）、PDK／Akt通路的特异性抑制剂Ly294002-氯胺酮预先给药组（D组）、Ly294002组（E组）。B组将CGNs放入特制缺氧盒中，缺氧3h后复氧；C组缺氧前1h加入200μmol／L氯胺酮；D组加入氯胺酮前30min加入20μmol／LLy294002；E组加入20μmol／LLy294002。复氧16h后进行下述指标的观察。二乙酸荧光素染色法测定CGNs存活率，Hoechst33258核染色检测CGNs凋亡细胞核，琼脂糖凝胶电泳检测DNA片断化水平，蛋白免疫印迹法（Western blot法）检测CGNs磷酸化Akt、磷酸化GSK3β及总Akt水平。结果缺氧复氧可诱导CGNs的凋亡，降低CGNs磷酸化Akt和磷酸化GSK3β水平（P〈0．05），氯胺酮预先给药可减轻缺氧复氧诱导的上述改变，氯胺酮对CGNs的这种保护作用可被Ly294002部分抑制。结论 氯胺酮预先给药可减轻缺氧复氧诱导大鼠CGNs凋亡，其机制与激活PI3K／Akt通路有关。     

Uridine protects cortical neurons from glucose deprivation-induced death: possible role of uridine phosphorylase

We previously reported that uridine blocked glucose deprivation-induced death of immunostimulated astrocytes by preserving ATP levels. Uridine phosphorylase (UPase), an enzyme catalyzing the reversible phosphorylation of uridine, was involved in this effect. Here, we tried to expand our previous findings by investigating the uridine effect on the brain and neurons using in vivo and in vitro ischemic injury models. Orally administrated uridine (50-200 mg/kg) reduced middle cerebral artery occlusion (1.5 h)/reperfusion (22 h)-induced infarct in mouse brain. Additionally, in the rat brain subjected to the same ischemic condition, UPase mRNA and protein levels were up-regulated. Next, we employed glucose deprivation-induced hypoglycemia in mixed cortical cultures of neurons and astrocytes as an in vitro model. Cells were deprived of glucose and, two hours later, supplemented with 20 mM glucose. Under this condition, a significant ATP loss followed by death was observed in neurons but not in astrocytes, which were blocked by treatment with uridine in a concentration-dependent manner. Inhibition of cellular uptake of uridine by S-(4-nitrobenzyl)-6-thioinosine blocked the uridine effect. Similar to our in vivo data, UPase expression was up-regulated by glucose deprivation in mRNA as well as protein levels. Additionally, 5-(phenylthio)acyclouridine, a specific inhibitor of UPase, prevented the uridine effect. Finally, the uridine effect was shown only in the presence of astrocytes. Taken together, the present study provides the first evidence that uridine protects neurons against ischemic insult-induced neuronal death, possibly through the action of UPase.     

Protection from cell death in cultured human fetal pancreatic cells

Endocrine cells from the human fetal pancreas will proliferate in vitro on extracellular matrix but lose hormone expression, and redifferentiation requires removal of the expanded cells from the matrix and reaggregation into cell aggregates. However, extensive cell death occurs during manipulation and culture. The mechanism of cell death was examined at each stage throughout the process under different experimental conditions to determine optimal protocols to increase cell viability. During shipment, the addition of trehalose to the media to prevent necrosis increased yield 17-fold, while during culture as islet-like cell clusters the apoptosis inhibitor Z-VAD increased yield 1.8-fold. Following disruption of cell matrix interactions and reaggregation, there was marked evidence of apoptotic bodies by the TUNEL assay. Addition of nicotinamide or Z-VAD, or removal of arginine from the media during reaggregation, reduced the number of apoptotic bodies and the effect was additive. However, a combination of treatments was necessary to significantly increase the yield of viable cells. We conclude that cell death of human fetal pancreatic tissue in culture results from both necrosis and apoptosis and that understanding the mechanisms at the cellular level will lead to protocols that will improve cell viability and promote beta-cell growth.     

Activation of protein kinase C isozymes protects LLCPK1 cells from H2O2 induced necrotic cell death

BACKGROUND/AIMS: We have previously reported that ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) to the kidney leads to induced expression of RACK1 and changes in the level of expression and subcellular distribution of PKC isozymes alpha, betaII and zeta. In order to further define the role of PKC isozymes in IRI we investigated the effect of activation or inhibition of the isozymes on cytotoxicity mediated by H(2)O(2) in LLCPK(1) cells. METHODS: Cytotoxicity was analyzed by Trypan blue assay and LDH release assay. Translocation of PKC isozymes postinjury in LLCPK1 cells was analyzed by immunostaining and Western blot analysis. RESULTS: Western blot analysis showed that the expression of PKC-alpha was up-regulated in a triphasic pattern with the initial induction within the first 10 min of injury followed by higher levels of expression at 2 and 24 h postinjury. The expression of PKC-zeta was highly induced within the first 15 min of injury but its expression was down-regulated to that of normal levels by 30 min postinjury. Immunocytochemistry showed that both PKC-alpha and PKC-zeta translocated to the nucleus and perinuclear region during H(2)O(2) treatment. Following injury, PKC-alpha expression was localized to the nuclear membrane at earlier time points but a translocation to the nucleus occurred at later time points. PKC-zeta translocated to nucleus at 30 minutes post injury and relocated back to the nuclear membrane at later time points. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that activation of PKC-alpha and PKC-zeta is involved in the H(2)O(2) induced injury of LLCPK1 cells.     

Erdosteine protects rat testis tissue from hypoxic injury by reducing apoptotic cell death

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of hypobaric hypoxia on testis morphology and the effects of erdosteine on testis tissue. Caspase‐3 and hypoxia‐inducible factor 1α expressions were detected by immunohistochemistry. Adult male Wistar rats were placed in a hypobaric hypoxic chamber. Rats in the erdosteine group were exposed to the same conditions and treated orally with erdosteine (20 mg kg^?1 daily) at the same time from the first day of hypoxic exposure for 2 weeks. The normoxia group was evaluated as the control. The hypoxia group showed decreased height of spermatogenic epithelium in some seminiferous tubules, vacuolisation in spermatogenic epithelial cells, deterioration and gaps in the basal membrane and an increase in blood vessels in the interstitial area. The erdosteine group showed amelioration of both epithelial cell vacuolisation and basal membrane deterioration. Numbers of hypoxia‐inducible factor 1α–immunostained Sertoli and Leydig cells were significantly higher in the hypoxia group than in the erdosteine group. The number of seminiferous tubules with caspase‐3–immunostained germ cells was highest in the hypoxia group and decreased in the erdosteine and normoxia groups respectively. Based on these observations, erdosteine protects testis tissue from hypoxic injury by reducing apoptotic cell death.     

二氮嗪预先给药对原代培养大鼠海马神经元缺氧/复氧损伤的保护机制

目的研究ATP敏感性钾通道开放剂二氮嗪预先给药对新生Wistar大鼠原代培养海马神经元缺氧/复氧损伤的保护机制。方法原代培养的新生大鼠海马神经元随机分为2组,二氮嗪组(Dia组),缺氧前给予50μmol/L二氮嗪;对照组(Con组),给予二氮嗪的赋形剂,即含2‰二甲基亚砜的0.01 mol/L磷酸盐缓冲液;分别在缺氧3 h/复氧24 h和缺氧3 h/复氧48 h后,测定神经元存活能力及LDH漏出率;在缺氧3 h/复氧24 h后,测定丙二醛(MDA)和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)水平;在缺氧3 h、缺氧3 h/复氧24 h和缺氧3 h/复氧48 h时,测定早期神经元凋亡率和死亡率。结果与Con组比较,Dia 组缺氧3 h复氧24 h时神经元存活能力升高,缺氧3 h/复氧48 h时LDH漏出率降低,缺氧3 h/复氧24 h培养液中MDA浓度降低,SOD活性升高(P<0.05或0.01);缺氧复氧各时点Dia组神经元坏死率降低,神经元凋亡率升高(P<0.05或0.01)。结论50 μmol/L二氮嗪预先给药减轻原代培养新生Wistar 大鼠海马神经元缺氧/复氧损伤的机制与增加SOD活性有关。     

Therapeutic concentrations of propofol protects mouse macrophages from nitric oxide-induced cell death and apoptosis

PURPOSE: To evaluate the potential effect of a clinically relevant concentration of propofol (PPF) on cell viability and nitric oxide-induced macrophage apoptosis. METHODS: Mouse macrophages (cell line Raw 264.7) were cultured and incubated with a nitric oxide donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP), PPF, and a combination of PPF and SNP for one, six and 24 hr. Cell viability was determined by the colorimetric 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Apoptotic cells were determined by analyzing the percentages of sub-G1 phase in macrophages. The amounts of nitric oxide were assayed. RESULTS: The amounts of nitric oxide in macrophages were increased with time when incubated with SNP (P < 0.05). Simultaneously, SNP caused cell death of macrophages in a concentration-and time-dependent manner (P < 0.05). PPF per se did not alter the amount of basal and SNP-provided nitric oxide in macrophages. A therapeutic concentration of PPF (30 microM) exhibited no cytotoxicity. After incubation with SNP for one and six hours, PPF could completely or partially block nitric oxide-induced cell death, respectively (P < 0.05). Administration of SNP to macrophages resulted in a time-dependent pattern of increase of apoptotic cells (P < 0.05). Similar to the results of the cell viability analyses, PPF was able to protect macrophages from nitric oxide-induced apoptosis in one and six hour-treated groups (P < 0.05) but not in the 24 hr treated group. CONCLUSION: PPF, at a therapeutic concentration, can protect mouse macrophages in vitro from nitric oxide-induced cell apoptosis as well as cell death.     

Modulation of noninactivating K+ channels in rat cerebellar granule neurons by halothane,isoflurane, and sevoflurane

Neuronal baseline K(+) channels were activated by several volatile anesthetics. Whole-cell recordings from cultured cerebellar granule neurons of 7-day-old male Sprague-Dawley rats showed outward-rectifying K(+) currents with a conductance of approximately 1.1 +/- 0.3 nS (n = 20) at positive potentials. The channel activity was noninactivating, exhibited no voltage gating, and was insensitive to conventional K(+) channel blockers. Clinically relevant concentrations of halothane (112, 224, 336, and 448 micro M) dissolved in Ringer's solution increased outward currents by 29%, 50%, 63%, and 94%, respectively (n = 5; P < 0.05; analysis of variance [ANOVA]). Similar increases in currents were produced by isoflurane (274, 411, 548, and 822 micro M), which increased outward currents by 22%, 47%, 52%, and 60%, respectively (n = 5; P < 0.05; ANOVA). Sevoflurane 518 micro M increased outward currents by 225% (n = 10; P < 0.05; ANOVA). In all experiments, channel activity quickly returned to baseline levels during wash. The outward-rectifying whole-cell current-voltage curves were consistent with the properties of anesthetic-sensitive KCNK channels. These results support the idea that noninactivating baseline K(+) channels are important target sites of volatile general anesthetics. IMPLICATIONS: The volatile anesthetics halothane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, reversibly enhanced a noninactivating outwardly rectifying K(+) current in rat cerebellar granule neurons. These findings support a model of anesthesia that includes a site of action at baseline K(+) channels.     

Selective Rac1 inhibition protects renal tubular epithelial cells from oxalate-induced NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative cell injury

Oxalate-induced oxidative cell injury is one of the major mechanisms implicated in calcium oxalate nucleation, aggregation and growth of kidney stones. We previously demonstrated that oxalate-induced NADPH oxidase-derived free radicals play a significant role in renal injury. Since NADPH oxidase activation requires several regulatory proteins, the primary goal of this study was to characterize the role of Rac GTPase in oxalate-induced NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative injury in renal epithelial cells. Our results show that oxalate significantly increased membrane translocation of Rac1 and NADPH oxidase activity of renal epithelial cells in a time-dependent manner. We found that NSC23766, a selective inhibitor of Rac1, blocked oxalate-induced membrane translocation of Rac1 and NADPH oxidase activity. In the absence of Rac1 inhibitor, oxalate exposure significantly increased hydrogen peroxide formation and LDH release in renal epithelial cells. In contrast, Rac1 inhibitor pretreatment, significantly decreased oxalate-induced hydrogen peroxide production and LDH release. Furthermore, PKC α and δ inhibitor, oxalate exposure did not increase Rac1 protein translocation, suggesting that PKC resides upstream from Rac1 in the pathway that regulates NADPH oxidase. In conclusion, our data demonstrate for the first time that Rac1-dependent activation of NADPH oxidase might be a crucial mechanism responsible for oxalate-induced oxidative renal cell injury. These findings suggest that Rac1 signaling plays a key role in oxalate-induced renal injury, and may serve as a potential therapeutic target to prevent calcium oxalate crystal deposition in stone formers and reduce recurrence.     

Effects of serum from patients with type 1 diabetes on primary cerebellar granule cells

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease of unknown etiology. Our previous work has shown that a factor present in serum from type 1 diabetic patients causes increased Ca2+ channel activity and apoptotic DNA fragmentation in pancreatic beta-cells. Here we examined the effects of type 1 diabetic serum on primary cerebellar granule cells (CGCs). In CGCs, exposure to type 1 diabetic serum did not cause increased apoptosis or changes in Ca2+ channel activity. However, patient serum did cause modulation of Ca2+ signals in a cell type with triangular soma that exhibited low voltage-gated Ca2+ currents. This cell was present primarily in cultures exposed to type 1 diabetic serum. The presence of low voltage-gated Ca2+ currents and long neuronal dendrites indicated that this unique cell was of neuronal origin and not of glial origin.     

Soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibition protects the kidney from hypertension-induced damage

Epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EET) have antihypertensive and anti-inflammatory properties and play a role in the maintenance of renal vascular function. A novel approach to increase EET levels is to inhibit epoxide hydrolase enzymes that are responsible for conversion of biologically active EET to dihydroxyeicosatrienoic acids (DHET). We hypothesized that soluble epoxide hydrolase (SEH) inhibition would improve renal vascular function and ameliorate hypertension induced renal damage. Chronic administration of the specific SEH inhibitor 1-cyclohexyl-3-dodecylurea (CDU, 3 mg/d) for 10 d lowered BP in angiotensin hypertensive rats. The contribution of renal vascular SEH to afferent arteriolar function in angiotensin hypertension was also assessed. SEH protein expression was increased in renal microvessels from hypertensive rats. Although CDU did not change afferent arteriolar responsiveness to angiotensin in normotensive animals, CDU treatment significantly attenuated afferent arteriolar diameter responses to angiotensin in hypertensive kidneys from 51% +/- 8% to 28% +/- 7%. Protection of the renal vasculature and glomerulus during chronic CDU administration was demonstrated by histology. Urinary albumin excretion, an index of renal damage, was also lower in CDU-treated hypertensive rats. These data demonstrate that SEH inhibition has antihypertensive and renal vascular protective effects in angiotensin hypertension and suggests that SEH inhibitors may be a useful therapeutic intervention for cardiovascular diseases.     

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibition limits abnormal COX-2 expression and progressive injury in the remnant kidney

BACKGROUND: The pathogenesis of progressive nephropathies involves hemodynamic and inflammatory factors. In the 5/6 nephrectomy model, a selective increase of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression was shown, whereas treatment with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory or a specific COX-2 inhibitor was renoprotective. We investigated in the 5/6 nephrectomy model (1) the renal distribution of COX-2; (2) the hemodynamic and cellular mechanisms by which chronic COX-2 inhibition prevents renal injury. METHODS: After 5/6 nephrectomy, adult male Munich-Wistar rats were subdivided in two groups: 5/6 nephrectomy (N=20), receiving vehicle, and 5/6 nephrectomy + celecoxib (N=19), treated orally with the COX-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, 10 mg/kg/day. Untreated and treated (celecoxib) sham-operated rats were also studied. Renal hemodynamics were examined at 4 weeks, whereas renal morphologic/immunohistochemical studies were carried at 8 weeks. RESULTS: At 4 weeks, 5/6 nephrectomy rats exhibited marked systemic and glomerular hypertension. Celecoxib attenuated both systemic and glomerular hypertension, without affecting glomerular filtration rate (GFR). At 8 weeks, glomerulosclerosis and interstitial expansion were evident in 5/6 nephrectomy rats, and markedly attenuated in 5/6 nephrectomy rats given celecoxib. In both sham-operated and 5/6 nephrectomy rats, COX-2 was expressed at the macula densa. The extent of COX-2 expression at the macula densa was nearly tripled by celecoxib, indicating the existence of a feedback mechanism. In 5/6 nephrectomy rats, COX-2 was also expressed in glomeruli, arterioles, and the cortical interstitium, mostly at inflamed or sclerosing areas. Celecoxib markedly attenuated renal injury, inflammation, and ectopic COX-2 expression in 5/6 nephrectomy rats. CONCLUSION: Chronic COX-2 inhibition attenuated progressive nephropathy by reducing glomerular hypertension, renal inflammation, and ectopic COX-2 expression, indicating a complex contribution of COX-2 to progressive renal injury in 5/6 nephrectomy rats.     

Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition potentiates morphine antinociception at the spinal level in a postoperative pain model

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: After peripheral inflammatory stimuli, spinal cord cyclooyxgenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA and protein levels increase, whereas COX-1 is unchanged. In animal models of inflammatory pain, intrathecal COX-2 selective inhibitors suppress hyperalgesia. However, the role of spinal COX-2 inhibition in postoperative pain is not well elucidated. This study investigates whether a water-soluble COX-2 selective inhibitor, L-745337, can modify allodynic responses in a rat model of postoperative pain. METHODS: Allodynia was induced in the left plantar hindpaw by surgical incision. Animals then received intrathecal (0-80 micro g) or subcutaneous (0-30 mg/kg) L-745337 coadministered with intrathecal morphine (0-2 nmol). Reduction of mechanical allodynia (increased withdrawal threshold) was quantified with calibrated von Frey hairs. RESULTS: L-745337 alone, whether intrathecal or systemic, had no effect on withdrawal threshold. When intrathecal L-745337 at doses of 40 to 80 micro g was combined with a subthreshold dose (0.5 nmol) of morphine, withdrawal thresholds were increased in a dose-dependent manner. Adding 80 micro g L-745337 to 1 nmol morphine produced an antiallodynic effect greater than that of morphine at twice the dose. Subcutaneous L-745337, up to 30 mg/kg combined with intrathecal morphine resulted in the same antiallodynic response as morphine alone. CONCLUSION: These results suggest a spinal interaction of COX-2 inhibition with opiate analgesia may allow a reduction of postoperative pain with lower doses of opiate.     

Overexpression of basic fibroblast growth factor and Bcl-xL with adenoviral vectors protects primarily cultured neurons against glutamate insult

OBJECTIVE: Excitatory amino acid (EAA) toxicity seems to be an important mechanism of neuronal cell death after cerebral infarction. We examined the inhibitory effects of neuronal cell death caused by EAA in vitro by means of adenoviral gene transfer of neurotrophic basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and antiapoptotic Bcl-xL. METHODS: Recombinant adenoviral vectors expressing human bFGF gene with secretory signals of interleukin-2 and human Bcl-xL gene were constructed. Primarily cultured rat neuronal cells were treated with glutamate to cause EAA, and the neuroprotective effects of gene transfer by these adenoviral vectors were investigated at several time points of infection. RESULTS: Each adenoviral infection to primarily cultured neuronal cells exhibited neuroprotective effects against EAA caused by glutamate. Both gene transfer of bFGF with secretory signal and Bcl-xL transfer to neuronal cells exhibited the synergistic neuroprotective effects against EAA. These effects were most prominent with gene transfer 4 hours before glutamate insult; gene transfer performed simultaneously with and up to 4 hours after the insult exhibited definite neuroprotective effects. CONCLUSION: These experiments revealed marked neuroprotective effects of adenoviral gene transfer of bFGF and Bcl-xL into neuronal cells in vitro. The findings may lead to new approaches for treating occlusive cerebrovascular disease.