Omega-3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acids are associated with depression in adolescents with eating disorders and weight loss

Aim: To study the relationship between polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) status and depression in adolescents with eating disorders (ED) and weight loss. Methods: Erythrocyte membranes from 217 adolescents (209 girls, eight boys) with ED were analysed for fatty acids (FA). ED and depression were diagnosed by clinical interviews and supported by self‐report instruments. Results: Adolescents with ED and depression did not differ from those with ED only in terms of age, BMI, weight loss and duration of disease. In their FA profile, depressed adolescents had lower proportions of eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA), the end products of the ω3 PUFA series. The ratio of long‐chain (>18 carbons) ω6/ω3 PUFA was therefore higher in depressed adolescents. Indices of desaturase activities did not differ between depressed and not depressed adolescents. Conclusion: Low ω3 status is related to depression in adolescents with ED. This cannot be explained by differences in weight (loss) and duration of disease, nor by differences in PUFA processing by desaturases. Data suggest a lower dietary intake of ω3 PUFA in those with depression. Further investigations should determine whether ω3 PUFA status improves by refeeding only or whether supplementation with PUFA is warranted.     

Fatty acid deficiency profile in children with food allergy managed with elimination diets

Aim: To evaluate plasma fatty acid (FA) composition of children with food allergy undergoing elimination diets that avoided the offending antigens. Methods: Twenty‐five children (14 male, 11 female) aged 3.8 ± 1.6 years (range 2–7 years) affected of multiple food allergy and managed with elimination diets participated in a cross‐sectional study. Results of plasma fatty acids were compared with data obtained in 61 healthy children. Results: The patients had significantly lower values for plasma content in total polyunsaturated fatty acids, ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and long‐chain ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (p < 0.001) and particularly, in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (20:5ω3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (22:6ω3) (p < 0.001). Moreover, all established indices (essential fatty acid [EFA] index ((ω3 +ω6)/(ω7 +ω9)) (p < 0.001) and sufficiency of docosahexaenoic acid index (C22:6ω3/C22:5ω6) (p < 0.001)) confirmed the presence of EFA deficiency. Conclusion: Children with food allergy managed with restricted intake of foods such as milk, egg, fish and vegetables are at risk of developing a deficiency in EFA and particularly in ω3 long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are especially necessary for adequate growth, neurological development and cardiovascular health.     

Different quantities and quality of fat in milk products given to young children: effects on long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and trans fatty acids in plasma

In this study we compared plasma contents of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) and trans fatty acids in triglycerides (TG), phospholipids (PL) and cholesterolesters (CE) in young children fed milk diets containing different amounts of linoleic (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). Because the diets differed in vitamin A and E content, plasma concentrations of vitamin A and E were also studied. Thirty-seven 1-y-old children were randomly assigned to one of four feeding groups: (1) low-fat milk (LF) (1.0 g cow's milk fat/dL); (2) standard-fat milk (SF) (3.5 g cow's milk fat/dL); (3) partially vegetable fat milk (PVF) (3.5 g fat/dL; 50% vegetable fat from rapeseed oil, 50% milk fat); and (4) full vegetable fat milk (FVF) (3.5 g fat/dL; 100% vegetable fat from palm-, coconut- and soybean oil). We found higher amounts of plasma LA in the FVF group than in the LF and SF groups (p < 0.001) and higher amounts of ALA in the PVF group than in the SF (p < 0.001 in TGs, p < 0.05 in CEs) and LF (p < 0.01 in PLs and CEs, p < 0.05 in TGs) groups. However, amounts of plasma arachidonic acid (AA) were similar between groups as well as the amounts of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in CEs and PLs. Total trans FAs were lower in CEs in the PVF and FVF groups than in the SF group (p < 0.05 SF vs PVF; p < 0.01 SF vs FVF). Plasma concentrations of alpha-tocopherol were higher in the FVF group than in the other groups (p < 0.05 FVF vs SF, p < 0.01 FVF vs SF and PVF). Conclusion: Children consuming milk diets containing high amounts of vegetable fat present with higher plasma LA and ALA without any effects on amounts of plasma LC-PUFA. The plasma LC-PUFA status is not adversely affected by a low-fat milk diet. AHA and DHA in plasma are not affected by the diets studied, presumably because 15-mo-old children may be able to compensate for dietary influences through endogenous LC-PUFA metabolism.     

Dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish among US children 12–60 months of age

This study aimed to estimate intake of individual polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), identify major dietary sources of PUFAs and estimate the proportion of individuals consuming fish among US children 12–60 months of age, by age and race and ethnicity. The study employed a cross‐sectional design using US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data. Representative sample of US population based on selected counties. Subjects: 2496 US children aged 12–60 months. Mean daily intake of n‐6 PUFAs and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) varied by age, with children 12–24 months of age having lower average intakes (mg or g day^?1) than children 49–60 months of age and the lowest n6 : n3 ratio, upon adjustment for energy intake. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake was low (20 mg day^?1) compared to typical infant intake and did not change with age. Compared to non‐Hispanic white children, Mexican American children had higher DHA and arachidonic acid (AA) intake. In the previous 30 days, 53.7% of children ever consumed fish. Non‐Hispanic black children were more likely than non‐Hispanic white children to have consumed fish (64.0% vs. 53.0%). Results indicate low prevalence of fish intake and key n‐3 PUFAs, relative to n‐6 fatty acids, which suggests room for improvement in the diets of US children. More research is needed to determine how increasing dietary intakes of n‐3 PUFAs like DHA could benefit child health.     

Plasma long-chain fatty acids and the degree of obesity in Italian children

Aim: To examine whether the plasma levels of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) are associated with the degree of obesity in children. Methods: Sixty-seven normolipidaemic obese children, aged 8-12 y, and 67 age- and sex-matched normal-weight children were included in the study. Obesity was defined in accordance with the International Obesity Task Force. BMI z-scores were calculated. Fasting blood samples were analysed for insulin, glucose, lipid profile and fatty acid (FA) levels (expressed as % total FA). Insulin resistance was estimated by homeostatic model assessment (HOMA). Results: Compared with normal-weight children, obese children exhibited lower mean plasma total PUFA (37.8% vs 39.7%), ω-6 PUFAs (35.0% vs 36.8%) and C_{22:6 ω-3}-to-C_{18:3 ω-3} ratio (5.52 vs 7.61), and higher total monounsaturated FA (26.6% vs 25.0%), C_{18:3 ω-3} (0.28% vs 0.25%) and C_{20:5 ω-3} (0.45% vs 0.39%). In obese children, the BMI z-score was negatively related to plasma PUFA, ω-3 PUFAs, C_{22:6 ω-3}, and the C_{22:6 ω-3}-to-C_{20:6 ω-6} and C_{22:6 ω-3}-to-C_{18:3 ω-3} ratios, and positively with total saturated FA and C_{20:3 ω-9}.



Conclusion: In obese children, plasma LC-PUFA profile may be associated with the degree of obesity.     

Long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant formula and cardiovascular markers in childhood

To investigate whether children who consumed infant formula supplemented with long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) had a more favourable cardiovascular profile than children who consumed formula without these fatty acids, we used the Wheezing Illnesses Study Leidsche Rijn, a birth cohort that included 2,468 newborns between 2001 and 2014. Data on infant feeding were obtained by questionnaires. At age 5, blood pressure, carotid intima‐media thickness (CIMT), and carotid distension were measured. We used multivariable linear regression analysis to compare levels of cardiovascular markers in formula‐fed children born before and after the LCPUFA supplementation. To account for secular trends, we compared levels of cardiovascular markers in a control group of breastfed children from the same cohort born before and after the supplementation. Formula‐fed children born after the LCPUFA supplementation (n = 48) had no different systolic blood pressure (?2.58 mmHg, 95% confidence interval, CI [?5.5, 0.30]), diastolic blood pressure (?0.13 mmHg, 95% CI [?2.3, 2.1]), or carotid distension (24.8 MPa^?1, 95% CI [?47.1, 96.6]) and had a higher CIMT (18.6 μm, 95% CI [3.7, 33.5]) than formula‐fed children born before the supplementation (n = 163). In the control group, children born after the LCPUFA supplementation (n = 98) had no different systolic‐ or diastolic‐blood pressure, or CIMT, and a higher carotid distension than children born before the supplementation (n = 142). In conclusion, children who consumed infant formula supplemented with LCPUFAs did not have a more favourable cardiovascular profile in early childhood than children who consumed formula without LCPUFAs.     

Plasma long-chain fatty acids profile and metabolic outcomes in normolipidaemic obese children after one-year nutritional intervention

Aim: To assess the association between changes in plasma long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) profile and metabolic outcomes after 1‐year nutritional intervention in normolipidaemic obese children. Methods: Fifty‐seven normolipidaemic obese children, aged 8–13 years, were recruited in the study. Body mass index (BMI) z‐scores were calculated. Fasting blood samples were analysed for insulin, glucose, lipid profile and fatty acid (FA) levels at baseline and after an 1‐year nutritional‐behaviour intervention. Insulin resistance was estimated by homeostatic model assessment (HOMA). Results: Fifty‐one obese children completed the study. At the end of the intervention, the children showed decreased BMI z‐score (mean reduction 0.25; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.18–0.31), HOMA index (1.6; 0.6–2.5), plasma‐saturated FA (1.49; 0.67–2.31 mg/dL), C20:3n‐9 (0.05; 0.02–0.07 mg/dL) and increased plasma levels of monounsaturated FA (mean increase 1.35; 0.63–2.07 mg/dL), n‐6 PUFA (1.02; 0.08–1.97 mg/dL), n‐3 PUFA (0.24; 0.07–0.40 mg/dL), C20:4n‐6 (0.37; 0.11–0.63 mg/dL), C18:3n‐3 (0.04; 0.01–0.07 mg/dL), C22:6n‐3 (0.30; 0.17–0.42 mg/dL) and the C22:6n‐3/C20:4n‐6 ratio (0.02; 0.01–0.03 mg/dL) ratio. Conclusions: Nutritional interventions may improve plasma LCPUFA profile and metabolic outcomes of normolipidaemic obese children.     

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??Objective??To determine the level of fecal short-chain fatty acids??SCFA?? of bacterial associated metabolites in children with Henoch-Schonlein purpura??HSP?? and study its clinical value. Methods??From June 2014 to January 2015??twenty-seven children with HSP and twenty-eight healthy children were enrollded in this study. The fecal samples were collected respectively in the acute phase and in the remission phase. SCFA were extracted from children’s feces?? and quantitatively analyzed by gas chromatography??GC??. Results??The content of acetic acid in control subjects??6.04±2.15??×10-5 was significantly higher than that in active stage of patients with HSP???3.90±3.08??×10-5?? P??0.05??? while there were no significant differences between control subjects and remission stage of patients???4.73±3.95??×10-5??P??0.05??. The level of butyric acid was significantly higher in the controls ??4.53??2.68??5.47????×10-5 than that in the active stage of patients with HSP??1.48??0.14??3.78??×10-5??P??0.017?? and the remission stage of patients??0.93??0.31??1.75??×10-5??P??0.017??. Compared with the active stage of patients??the level of acetic acid and butyric acid in the remission stage of patients was not significantly different. No significant differences were found in the results of propionic acid??or isobutyric acid or isovaleric acid??all P??0.017??. Conclusion??The levels of acetic acid and butyric acid in feces are significantly decreased in patients with HSP at active stage. The content of acetic acid increases in remission period??but doesn’t fully return to normal level. However the fecal butyric acid content is much lower in remission period.     

Plasma lipid and apolipoprotein concentrations in full term infants fed formula supplemented with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol

Recent data indicate that supplementation of infant formula with ω-3 and ω-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids might offer developmental benefits for full term infants. We investigated biochemical consequences of feeding formula supplemented with egg lipids to provide long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and compared triglyceride, cholesterol, lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL₂-cholesterol, HDL₃-cholesterol, non-HDL-cholesterol) and apolipoprotein A-I, A-II and B concentrations in full term infants fed either conventional formula (n = 10) or a formula supplemented with ω-3 and ω-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol in amounts similar to those found in mature human milk (n = 12). At the age of 5 days, cholesterol, non-HDL-cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations were significantly higher in infants fed supplemented than in those receiving conventional formula. At the age of 30 days, triglyceride concentrations were significantly higher with supplemented than with conventional formula. Thereafter throughout the study, no significant differences were seen between the two groups. Conclusion Full term infants fed formula supplemented with ω-3 and ω-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol showed significantly higher plasma cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations than infants receiving conventional formula on day 5 and on days 5 and 30, respectively. Thereafter no appreciable effect of diet on plasma phospholipid, triglyceride, cholesterol, lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein concentrations were seen. Received: 13 March 1996 / Accepted: 21 October 1996     

Erythrocyte membrane omega-3 fatty acid levels and omega-3 fatty acid intake are not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with islet autoimmunity: the Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY)

Miller MR, Yin X, Seifert J, Clare‐Salzler M, Eisenbarth GS, Rewers M, Norris JM. Erythrocyte membrane omega‐3 fatty acid levels and omega‐3 fatty acid intake are not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with islet autoimmunity: The Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY). Aim: We investigated whether omega‐3 fatty acid intake and erythrocyte membrane omega‐3 fatty acid levels are associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with islet autoimmunity (IA). Methods: The Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young is following children at increased genetic risk for type 1 diabetes for the development of persistent IA, as defined as being positive for glutamic acid decarboxylase 65, i, or insulin autoantibodies on two consecutive visits, and then for the development of type 1 diabetes, as diagnosed by a physician. One hundred and sixty‐seven children with persistent IA were followed for a mean of 4.8 yr, and 45 of these developed type 1 diabetes at a mean age of 8.7 yr. Erythrocyte membrane fatty acids (as a percent of total lipid) and dietary fatty acid intake (estimated via food frequency questionnaire) were analyzed as time‐varying covariates in proportional hazards survival analysis, with follow‐up time starting at detection of the first autoantibody. Results: Neither dietary intake of omega‐3 fatty acids nor omega‐6 fatty acids were associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes, adjusting for human leukocyte antigen (HLA)‐DR, family history of type 1 diabetes, age at first IA positivity, maternal age, maternal education, and maternal ethnicity. Adjusting for HLA‐DR, family history of type 1 diabetes and age at first IA positivity, omega‐3 and omega‐6 fatty acid levels of erythrocyte membranes were not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes. Conclusions: In this observational study, omega‐3 fatty acid intake and status are not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with IA.     

Polyunsaturated fatty acids in erythrocyte and plasma lipids of children with severe protein–energy malnutrition

The fatty acid composition of plasma cholesterol esters, plasma phospholipids, erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine and erythrocyte phosphatidylethanolamine was investigated in severely malnourished Nigerian children with kwashiorkor (n = 12) and marasmus (n = 32). Normally nourished children from the same area (n = 23) served as controls. The malnourished children showed a significant reduction of highly polyunsaturated fatty acids in cholesterol esters, phospholipids and phosphatidylcholine. No differences between the groups were found in erythrocyte phosphatidylethanolamine. Children with kwashiorkor had lower levels of linoleic acid metabolites and docosahexaenoic acid than marasmic children. The results suggest that the kwashiorkor syndrome is associated with impaired desaturation and elongation of PUFA and/or increased lipid peroxidation.     

ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸对脓毒症大鼠淋巴细胞凋亡率的影响

目的探讨ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸对脓毒症大鼠胸腺和脾脏淋巴细胞凋亡的影响。方法将80只7~8周龄雌性Sprague-Dawley大鼠随机分成模型组、传统脂肪乳剂治疗组(每日0.1 g/kg)、ω-3PUFAs低剂量治疗组(每日0.1 g/kg)、ω-3PUFAs中剂量治疗组(每日0.2 g/kg)和ω-3PUFAs高剂量治疗组(每日0.3 g/kg)。采用盲肠结扎穿孔法建立脓毒症大鼠模型,造模后各治疗组分别给予脂肪乳剂和不同剂量ω-3PUFAs葡萄糖稀释液尾静脉注射给药,模型组予等量葡萄糖注射液尾静脉注射。按处死时间将各组大鼠随机分为24 h和72 h两个亚组,每组8只大鼠。采用苏木精-伊红染色观察各组大鼠胸腺和脾脏的病理改变;采用TUNEL法检测各组大鼠脾脏和胸腺淋巴细胞凋亡指数。结果不同剂量ω-3PUFAs组大鼠胸腺小叶结构完整,皮髓质结构清晰,模型组和传统脂肪乳剂治疗组皮髓质界限不清,淋巴细胞明显减少;ω-3PUFAs组脾脏红髓和白髓结构尚能保持,可见脾小结存在,而模型组和传统脂肪乳剂治疗组红髓和白髓结构紊乱,脾小结明显缩小或消失。不同剂量ω-3PUFAs组24 h和72 h胸腺和脾脏淋巴细胞凋亡率均较模型组、传统脂肪乳剂治疗组显著降低(P0.01),ω-3PUFAs高剂量治疗组24 h和72 h脾脏淋巴细胞凋亡率均较ω-3PUFAs低剂量治疗组显著降低(P0.05)。结论ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸有减轻脓毒症大鼠胸腺和脾脏淋巴细胞凋亡的作用,并且可能与剂量相关。     

Docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid content of serum and red blood cell membrane phospholipids of preterm infants fed breast milk,standard formula or formula supplemented with n-3 and n-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

The contents of docosahexaenoic (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) of plasma and red blood cell membrane phospholipids were studied in 41 very low birth weight infants fed either breast milk (n=18), a standard formula without long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids with 20 or 22 carbon atoms (LCP) but with -linolenic acid and linoleic acid (n=11) or a formula additionally supplemented with n-3 and n-6 LCP in relations typical for human milk (n=12) after 2, 6, and 10 weeks of feeding. The content of DHA and AA in plasma phospholipids declined in the infants fed the LCP-free formula but remained more or less constant during the whole feeding period in those infants fed breast milk as well as in those fed the LCP-supplemented formula. The differences between the group fed the LCP-free standard formula and the two groups fed LCP-containing diets became significant during the first 2 weeks of feeding. In contrast, there were no differences between the group fed breast milk and the group fed the supplemented formula during the study period. Similar effects could be observed regarding the composition of red blood cell membrane phospholipids, but the differences between the infants fed the LCP-free standard formula and the two other groups with LCP-containing diets were significant only for AA. The data indicate that very low birth weight infants are unable to synthesize LCP from -linolenic acid and linoleic acid in sufficient amounts to prevent a decline of LCP in plasma and red blood cell phospholipids. Additionally, the data show, that supplementation of formulas with n-3 and n-6 LCP in amounts typical for human milk fat results in similar fatty acid profiles of plasma and red blood cell membrane phospholipids as found during breast milk feeding.Conclusion Supplementation of formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids improves the LCP status of very low birth weight infants.     

Long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids decline rapidly in milk from mothers delivering extremely preterm indicating the need for supplementation

Aim

Our aim was to perform an in‐depth analysis of the composition of fatty acids in milk from mothers delivering extremely preterm babies. We investigated longitudinal changes in milk fatty acid profiles and the relationship between several types of fatty acids, including omega‐3 and omega‐6.

Methods

Milk samples were collected at three stages of lactation from 78 mothers who delivered at less than 28 weeks of pregnancy at the Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden, from April 2013 to September 2015. Fatty acid composition was analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.

Results

A reduction in long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) was observed during the lactation period. The concentrations of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid declined from medians of 0.34 to 0.22 mol% and 0.29 to 0.15 mol%, respectively, between postnatal day 7 and a postmenstrual age of 40 weeks. Strong correlations were found between the intermediates of several classes of fatty acids, including omega‐3, omega‐6 and omega‐9.

Conclusion

A rapid reduction in LCPUFA content in the mother's milk during the lactation period emphasises the importance of fatty acid supplementation to infants born extremely preterm, at least during the period corresponding to the third trimester, when rapid development of the brain and adipose tissue requires high levels of LCPUFAs.     

超重与正常体重过敏性哮喘儿童特异性免疫治疗前后尘螨皮肤点刺试验强度分析

目的对超重和正常体重过敏性哮喘患儿屋尘螨变应原标准化皮下注射特异性免疫治疗前后皮肤点刺试验(SPT)尘螨过敏原强度的分析。方法 215例SPT屋尘螨、粉尘螨均阳性的过敏性哮喘患儿纳入该研究,按照体重指数分为超重组(63例)和正常体重组(152例),比较两组标准化皮下注射特异性免疫治疗6个月及1年后屋尘螨、粉尘螨过敏原皮肤指数(SI)变化情况。结果在控制检测时间点变异的情况下,超重组组胺皮丘直径大于正常体重组(P0.05);在控制体重变异的情况下,患儿屋尘螨SI、粉尘螨SI均随治疗时间的变化差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。治疗后6个月及1年,两组屋尘螨SI、粉尘螨SI均可见明显下降,但超重组较正常组下降更显著。结论超重过敏性哮喘患儿对组胺反应更强烈;特异性免疫治疗能降低哮喘患儿尘螨过敏强度;在特异性免疫治疗后1年内,超重过敏性哮喘患儿尘螨过敏程度下降更明显。     

Atopy, eczema and breast milk fatty acids in a high-risk cohort of children followed from birth to 5 yr

BACKGROUND: The incidence of atopic diseases such as eczema is increasing in westernized societies. The suggestion that there is a "protective" association between the unique fatty acid composition of breast milk, particularly the omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) essential polyunsaturated fatty acid content, and the development of atopic disease in children was investigated in a cohort study of 263 infants born into families with a history of allergy (one or both parents had asthma, hayfever, eczema). The objectives of this study were to determine the lipid profile [specifically in relation to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) composition] in maternal breast milk samples collected at 6 wk and at 6 months following birth, and to investigate the potential role of these fatty acids in modulating the phenotype of children at high genetic risk of developing atopic disease. METHOD: Breast milk samples were available from 91 atopic mothers at their child's ages of 6 wk and 6 months. These samples were analysed for the fatty acid spectrum. Analysis of variance was used to detect differences between groups of outcomes (no atopy or eczema, non-atopic eczema, atopy, atopic eczema) at ages 6 months and 5 yr, and a multiple comparisons procedure was conducted to isolate the parameters producing the different results (F-test, LSD test). For the exposure variables, n-3 and n-6 fatty acids are expressed as weight percentage and as a ratio (at both time-points). RESULTS: The fatty acid profiles of maternal breast milk at 6 wk and 6 months were similar. An increased ratio of n-6: n-3 fatty acids in both 6 wk and 6 month milk samples was associated with non-atopic eczema (p < 0.005) but not atopy alone or atopic eczema. CONCLUSION: We found milk fatty acids were a significant modulator of non-atopic eczema but not atopy or atopic eczema in infants at 6 months. In mothers with a history of asthma, hayfever or eczema, their 6-month-old infants were more likely to develop non-atopic eczema if their milk had a higher ratio of n-6: n-3 LC-PUFA.