The Work–Family Interface as a Mediator between Job Demands and Employee Behaviour

In this investigation, we draw from the job demands–resource model and conservation of resources theory to examine the relationship between job demands, the work–family interface and worker behaviours. Data collected from an online survey of workers revealed that hindrance demands indirectly increase interpersonal and organizational deviance through work interference with family and family interference with work. Challenge demands indirectly predict interpersonal and organizational deviance through work interference with family. Finally, hindrance demands indirectly decreased individual‐directed organizational citizenship behaviours through work‐to‐family enrichment. Taken together, these results stress the relevance of job demand management and resource drain/acquisition to counterproductive and extra‐role behaviours. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Three‐wave Study of Antecedents of Work–Family Enrichment: The Roles of Social Resources and Affect

On the basis of conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989 ) and the resource‐gain‐development perspective (Wayne, Grzywacz, Carlson, & Kacmar, 2007 ), this paper examines the differential impact of specific social resources (supervisory support and family support) on specific types of affect (job satisfaction and family satisfaction, respectively), which, in turn, influence work‐to‐family enrichment and family‐to‐work enrichment, respectively. A sample of 276 Chinese workers completed questionnaires in a three‐wave survey. The model was tested with structural equation modelling. Job satisfaction at time 2 partially mediated the relationship between time 1 supervisory support and time 3 work‐to‐family enrichment (capital), and the effect of supervisory support on work‐to‐family enrichment (affect) was fully mediated by job satisfaction. Family satisfaction at time 2 fully mediated the relationship between time 1 family support and time 3 family‐to‐work enrichment (affect, efficiency). Implications for theory, practice and future research are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Investigating the Relative Importance of Individual Differences on the Work–Family Interface and the Moderating Role of Boundary Preference for Segmentation

This study examines the relative importance of individual differences in relation to perceptions of work–family conflict and facilitation, as well as the moderating role of boundary preference for segmentation on these relationships. Relative importance analyses, based on a diverse sample of 380 employees from the USA, revealed that individual differences were consistently predictive of self‐reported work–family conflict and facilitation. Conscientiousness, neuroticism, negative affect and core self‐evaluations were consistently related to both directions of work–family conflict, whereas agreeableness predicted significant variance in family‐to‐work conflict only. Positive affect and core self‐evaluations were consistently related to both directions of work–family facilitation, whereas agreeableness and neuroticism predicted significant variance in family‐to‐work facilitation only. Collectively, individual differences explained 25–28% of the variance in work–family conflict (primarily predicted by neuroticism and negative affect) and 11–18% of the variance in work–family facilitation (primarily predicted by positive affect and core self‐evaluations). Moderated regression analyses showed that boundary preference for segmentation strengthened many of the relationships between individual differences and work–family conflict and facilitation. Implications for addressing the nature of work and family are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The ability of ‘family friendly’ organizational resources to predict work–family conflict and job and family satisfaction

The effectiveness of organizational interventions in reducing the adverse consequences of work–family conflict has produced mixed findings. This paper examines the relationship between the use of organizational ‘family friendly’ resources (such as crèche facilities, flexible working hours, and job sharing), with levels of work–family conflict, and job and family satisfaction over time. Using structural equation modelling, these associations were tested in 398 employed men and women who each completed a self‐report questionnaire administered on two occasions. The use of organizational interventions directly predicted increased levels of concurrent (Time 1) work–family interference and increased levels of subsequent (Time 2) job satisfaction. Both organizational interventions and family interventions (i.e. support) positively predicted subsequent family satisfaction. The research demonstrates that the provision of organizational ‘family‐friendly’ practices will produce improved psychological outcomes for employees. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Moderating Role of Acculturation in a Mediation Model of Work–Family Conflict among Chinese Immigrants in New Zealand

This study examined the antecedents of work–family conflict (WFC) and the mediation effects of WFC on well‐being consequences among Chinese immigrants to New Zealand, along with the moderating role of acculturation. Four types of WFC were explored: time‐based and strain‐based work interference with family, and time‐based and strain‐based family interference with work. Data were collected from 577 Chinese immigrants in New Zealand, who had full‐time or part‐time work and lived with family members in New Zealand. The four types of WFC were differentially related to the antecedents and well‐being consequences, providing some evidence that both Chinese and New Zealand cultures may exert influences on Chinese immigrants' experiences of WFC. Both directions of WFC (work interference with family, and family interference with work) were related to job satisfaction and family satisfaction, and strain‐based WFC influenced their well‐being more than time‐based WFC. Most importantly, we found immigrants who were proficient in English perceived greater WFC and psychological strain. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Workaholism,Work Engagement and Work–Home Outcomes: Exploring the Mediating Role of Positive and Negative Emotions

This study examines the mechanisms through which workaholism and work engagement impact work–home conflict and enrichment, respectively. Specifically, we examine the mediating role of positive and negative emotions (e.g. joviality and guilt) in the relationship between workaholism, work engagement and work–home outcomes. Results, based on a sample of 340 working adults participating in a two‐wave study, indicate that negative emotions—particularly anxiety, anger and disappointment—mediate the relationship between workaholism and work–home conflict and positive emotions—particularly joviality and self‐assurance—mediate the relationship between work engagement and work–home enrichment. These results provide further evidence that workaholism and work engagement are related to distinct sets of emotional variables and disparate work and home outcomes. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Home is Private…Do Not Enter! Introversion and Sensitivity to Work–Home Conflict

This study examined extraversion as a moderator of the relationship between negative work–home conflict and stress‐related outcomes among US employees using conservation of resources theory and privacy regulation theory. Introverts only experienced stronger negative effects of negative work–home conflict on work‐related resource depletion (job burnout, low engagement, low satisfaction with balance) rather than general resource depletion (personal burnout) and strain (physical and psychological). This finding suggests that introverts selectively withdraw from the work domain to conserve resources when privacy at home is threatened. Employers may want to consider ways to help introverts increase work–home segmentation, such as reducing workplace norms that encourage employees to be continuously accessible. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Linking household income and work–family conflict: a moderated mediation study

Research on the work–family interface has not often explored the role of structural characteristics such as income in the associations among work stressors, work–family conflict and family stressors. The goal of this study was to examine household income as a moderator of the relations among these variables. Results from a nationally (US) representative sample of 1472 employed individuals who were married with children indicate that the relations between work‐to‐family interference and family strain were stronger for individuals with lower household incomes than for those with higher household incomes. Furthermore, family strain was more strongly associated with family‐to‐work interference for individuals in low‐income households. Household income did not moderate other relations examined in the study. Potential explanations for these moderating effects are discussed, along with their implications for the generalizability of findings in the work–family literature across contexts. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Work–family interference as a mediator between job demands and job burnout among doctors

There is an increasing realization that the connections between work and family life are of critical importance in contemporary society. The present study examined the relationship between job demands and burnout, and the mediational role of work–family interference (WFI) in a sample of Greek doctors (N = 162). The main findings are: (1) emotional job demands were found to be a strong independent predictor of both emotional exhaustion and depersonalization; (2) quantitative job demands were found to predict emotional exhaustion; (3) WFI was found to partially mediate the relationship between both quantitative/emotional job demands and emotional exhaustion; (4) additionally, WFI partially mediated the relationship between emotional job demands and depersonalization. The results and limitations are discussed with reference to the medical profession. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predicting employees' well‐being using work–family conflict and job strain models

The present study examined the effects of two models of work–family conflict (WFC) and job‐strain on the job‐related and context‐free well‐being of employees. The participants of the study consisted of Iranian employees from a variety of organizations. The effects of three dimensions of the job‐strain model and six forms of WFC on affective well‐being were assessed. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that the number of working hours, strain‐based work interfering with family life (WIF) along with job characteristic variables (i.e. supervisory support, job demands and job control) all make a significant contribution to the prediction of job‐related well‐being. On the other hand, strain‐based WIF and family interfering with work (FIW) significantly predicted context‐free well‐being. Implications are drawn and recommendations made regarding future research and interventions in the workplace. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Investigating the work–family conflict and health link: Repetitive thought as a mechanism

Research is needed to investigate mechanisms linking work–family conflict to poor health in working adults. We took a novel approach to build on extant studies by testing a potential mechanism in these associations – repetitive thought. Data came from a sample of 203 partnered working adults. There were significant direct effects of work–family conflict with lower life satisfaction, positive affect, and perceived health as well as greater fatigue. As for total effects, work–family conflict was significantly associated with all health outcomes – life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, fatigue, perceived health, and chronic health conditions – in the expected directions through repetitive thought. This study provides support that repetitive thought is one potential mechanism of how work–family conflict can take a toll on psychological and physical health. Findings are discussed in relation to improving workplace policies to improve the health of working adults managing work–family conflict.     

Work–home interference and the relationship with job characteristics and well‐being: a South African study among employees in the construction industry

Although the relationship between job characteristics, work–home interference (WHI) and work‐related well‐being has been researched in Western societies, this relationship has not often been tested in non‐Western societies such as South Africa and among low‐wage non‐professional workers, like construction workers. The aim of this study was to test the mediating effect of negative and positive WHI in the relationship between job characteristics (job demands and job resources) and work‐related well‐being (burnout and work engagement) in a sample of 528 employees in the construction industry in South Africa. Structural equation modelling showed that, as expected, job demands and job resources were partially related to burnout, both directly and indirectly through negative WHI. Similarly, job resources were partially related to work engagement, both directly and indirectly, through positive WHI. It can be concluded that these results extend previous research by showing that the relationships between job characteristics, WHI and well‐being hold true for low‐wage workers in a non‐Western society. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differential Reactivity and the Within‐person Job Stressor–Satisfaction Relationship

An experience sampling methodology was used to study the direct and conditional within‐person relationship between job stressors and job satisfaction. One hundred and one full‐time administrative staff completed momentary measures of job stressors and job satisfaction three times a day on six different workdays over a 3‐week period (N = 1818 observations). Multilevel random coefficients models were specified, and the results suggest that within‐person stressors are negatively related to within‐person job satisfaction. These results stand when controlling for the effects of time, demographics, work characteristics, baseline levels of job stressors and satisfaction, and between‐person effects of job stressors. Furthermore, consistent with the differential reactivity model, the results suggest that the observed within‐person stressors–satisfaction relationship is conditional upon locus of control and positive affect. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Path analysis of work conditions and work–family spillover as modifiable workplace factors associated with depressive symptomatology

Background: Literature pertaining to the relationship between workplace factors and depression has been compartmentalized: work conditions, family conditions, and work–family balance have been studied separately as predictors of depressive symptoms but not concurrently. Objective: Work conditions and work–family spillover were considered concurrently as modifiable workplace factors associated with depressive symptomatology, while controlling for confounding socio‐economic factors. Methods: This cross‐sectional study involved 218 female health care workers who completed a survey assessing work conditions [Effort–Reward Imbalance (ERI) scale and Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ)], work–family balance (work–family spillover scale), sociodemographic information, and depressive symptoms [Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES‐D) scale]. Results: Path analysis supported the presence of a direct relationship between depressive symptoms and high effort–reward imbalance, high negative work–family spillover, low positive family‐to‐work spillover, and low education. The indirect effect of low support from work was mediated by negative work‐to‐family spillover and high effort–reward imbalance. The indirect effect of high effort–reward imbalance was mediated by increased negative work‐to‐family spillover. The indirect effect of having children 18 years or younger was mediated by decreased positive family‐to‐work spillover. An indirect effect of low education was mediated by high effort–reward imbalance and high negative work‐to‐family spillover. Conclusions: The association between work conditions and depressive symptomatology is mediated by increased negative work‐to‐family spillover. The impact of having young children is mediated by decreased positive family‐to‐work spillover. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When work strain transcends psychological boundaries: an inquiry into the relationship between time pressure,irritation, work–family conflict and psychosomatic complaints

Against the theoretical background of the effort–recovery model and the action regulation theory, the author presents a cross‐sectional questionnaire study testing hypotheses about the relationship between work‐related time pressure, cognitive and emotional irritation, work–family conflict and psychosomatic complaints. Subjects were 576 female home care nurses. Results of a path analysis show that the relation of time pressure and psychosomatic complaints is partially mediated by experiencing a work–family conflict; also the relation of time pressure and work–family conflict is partially mediated by cognitive and emotional irritation. It is argued that cognitive and emotional irritation are fruitful concepts for a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between work stressors and the development of strain‐based work–family conflict. Implications for the prevention of work–family conflict are outlined. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job stress and satisfaction among nurses: individual differences

In a study involving 276 nurses in a large hospital in Northern Ireland, a comprehensive set of questionnaires was administered to assess multiple job‐related variables. Nurses in general appeared to display high scores on the stresses related to confidence and competency in role, home–work conflict, and organisational involvement (subscales which are themselves closely associated with demands in social interaction at work). These are stresses which were related to psychological well‐being. There were no gender differences on occupational stress or the health outcome variables. Age did emerge as significantly related to total stress and mental health (older nurses reporting more stress, and the younger nurses experiencing better psychological health). Grade of nursing was unrelated to job stress and outcome health variables, including work satisfaction. Although no differences were observed between wards/specialism and stress, differences were revealed along satisfaction, with maternity nurses (and intensive care nurses) displaying the highest level of satisfaction at work, and surgical (and medical) nurses showing the lowest. Finally, Type A emerged as a significant determinant of physical health, in contrast to internal locus of control, which was more related to mental health, (lower) occupational stress, and job satisfaction. No significant Type A×locus of control interactions were observed. The implications of these findings for nursing care are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Emergence of Family‐specific Support Constructs: Cross‐level Effects of Family‐supportive Supervision and Family‐Supportive Organization Perceptions on Individual Outcomes

Implicit to the definitions of both family‐supportive supervision (FSS) and family‐supportive organization perceptions (FSOP) is the argument that these constructs may manifest at a higher (e.g. group or organizational) level. In line with these conceptualizations, grounded in tenants of conservation of resources theory, we argue that FSS and FSOP, as universal resources, are emergent constructs at the organizational level, which have cross‐level effects on work–family conflict and turnover intentions. To test our theoretically derived hypotheses, a multilevel model was examined in which FSS and FSOP at the unit level predict individual work‐to‐family conflict, which in turn predicts turnover intentions. Our hypothesized model was generally supported. Collectively, our results point to FSOP serving as an explanatory mechanism of the effects that mutual perceptions of FSS have on individual experiences of work‐to‐family conflict and turnover intentions. Lagged (i.e. overtime) cross‐level effects of the model were also confirmed in supplementary analyses. Our results extend our theoretical understanding of FSS and FSOP by demonstrating the utility of conceptualizing them as universal resources, opening up a variety of avenues for future research. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Gender Differences in Perceptions of Resources and Turnover Intentions of Work‐Linked Couples in Masculine Occupations

Employees in work‐linked marriages have spouses that share the same family and the same workplace and/or occupation. Whereas, in recent years, there has been increasingly more research on dual‐career marriages (i.e. both spouses work, but not necessarily at the same workplace and/or occupation), there has been very little research on work‐linked marriages. The current study focuses on work resources (i.e. family supportive supervisor behaviour and job control) as key mediating processes that explain the effect of gender on turnover intentions among work‐linked employees in masculine occupations (i.e. military). Investigating gender differences is important because, compared with men, women are more likely to be in work‐linked marriages and to leave their jobs. Based on role theory and conservation of resource theory, we predicted that gender was related to turnover intentions, and this relationship would be mediated by key explanatory variables (i.e. family supportive supervisor behaviours, job control and psychological distress). Mediation analyses, conducted on a sample of men and women in work‐linked marriages (n = 309), provide support for the hypothesized model. These findings offer guidance for understanding gender differences among work‐linked employees in masculine occupations, and how these differences can affect important outcomes such as turnover intentions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Functional Pathways of Social Support for Mental Health in Work and Family Domains Among Chinese Scientific and Technological Professionals

This study investigated the role of social support in the complex pattern of associations among stressors, work–family interferences and depression in the domains of work and family. A questionnaire was administered to a nationwide sample of 11,419 Chinese science and technology professionals. Several structural equation models were specified to determine whether social support functioned as a predictor or a mediator. Using Mplus 5.0, we compared the moderation model, the independence model, the antecedent model and the mediation model. The results revealed that the relationship between work–family interference and social support was domain specific. The independence model fit the data best in the work domain. Both the moderation model and the antecedent model fit the family domain data equally well. The current study was conducted to answer the need for comprehensive investigations of cultural uniqueness in the antecedents of work–family interference. The domain specificity, i.e. the multiple channels of the functions of support in the family domain and not in the work domain, ensures that this study is unique and culturally specific. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.