TTI1 promotes non‐small‐cell lung cancer progression by regulating the mTOR signaling pathway

The role of TELO2‐interacting protein 1 (TTI1) in the progression of several types of cancer has been reported recently. The aim of this study was to estimate the expression and potential value of TTI1 in non‐small‐cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. The expression of TTI1 and its prognostic value in NSCLC from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were analyzed. To verify the bioinformatics findings, a tissue microarray containing 160 NSCLC and paired peritumoral tissues from NSCLC patients was analyzed by immunohistochemistry for TTI1. Subsequently, the roles of TTI1 in NSCLC cells were investigated in vivo by establishing xenograft models in nude mice and in vitro by transwell, CCK‐8, wound healing, and colony formation assays. In addition, quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction and western blot were applied to explore the underlying mechanism by which TTI1 promotes tumor progression. Finally, the relationship between TTI1 and Ki67 expression level in NSCLC was probed, and Kaplan–Meier and Cox analyses were performed to assess the prognostic merit of TTI1 and Ki67 in NSCLC patients. We found that the expression of TTI1 was significantly upregulated in NSCLC tissues compared to paired peritumoral tissues, which coincides with the bioinformatics findings from the TCGA and GEO databases. TTI1 was highly expressed in NSCLC patients with large tumors, advanced tumor stage, and lymphatic metastasis. In addition, the prognostic analysis identified TTI1 as an independent indication for poor prognosis of NSCLC patients. In vitro, upregulation of TTI1 in NSCLC cells could facilitate cell invasion, metastasis, viability, and proliferation. Mechanistically, our study verified that TTI1 could regulate mTOR activity, which has a pivotal role in human cancer. Consistently, the expressions of TTI1 and Ki67 had a positive relationship in NSCLC cells and tissues. Notably, patients with overexpression of TTI1 or Ki67 had a shorter overall survival rate and a higher disease‐free survival rate compared to patients with low expression of TTI1 or Ki67, and the combination of TTI1 and Ki67 was an independent parameter predicting the prognosis and recurrence of NSCLC patients. We conclude that TTI1 promotes NSCLC cell proliferation, metastasis, and invasion by regulating mTOR activity, and the combination of TTI1 and Ki67 is a valuable molecular biomarker for the survival and recurrence of NSCLC patients.     

NQO1 promotes an aggressive phenotype in hepatocellular carcinoma via amplifying ERK‐NRF2 signaling

Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are usually diagnosed at the later stages and have poor survival outcomes. New molecules are urgently needed for the prognostic predication and individual treatment. Our study showed that high levels of NQO1 expression frequently exist in HCC with an obvious cancer‐specific pattern. Patients with NQO1‐high tumors are significantly associated with poor survival outcomes and serve as independent predictors. Functional experiments showed that NQO1 promotes the growth and aggressiveness of HCC in both in vitro and in vivo models, and the underlying mechanism involved NQO1‐derived amplification of ERK/p38‐NRF2 signaling. Combined block of ERK and NRF2 signaling generated stronger growth inhibition compared with any single block, especially for HCC with high‐NQO1. Therefore, NQO1 is a potential biomarker for HCC early diagnosis and prognosis prediction, and also attractive for cancer‐specific targets for HCC treatment.     

Cancer cells escape autophagy inhibition via NRF2-induced macropinocytosis

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MicroRNA-100调节mTOR表达对肝癌细胞侵袭转移及上皮间质转化的影响及机制研究

目的:探讨microRNA-100调节m TOR表达对肝癌细胞侵袭转移及上皮间质转化的影响并研究其可能的分子机制。方法:通过脂质体介导将microRNA-100模拟物及阴性对照转染Hep G2细胞,将细胞分为转染试剂对照组(mock)、阴性对照组(control)和microRNA-100 mimic(miRNA-100 mimic)组。采用realtime PCR检测转染后细胞中miRNA-100的表达水平,Western blot检测m TOR的表达变化,细胞划痕实验检测细胞的迁移能力,Tranwell检测细胞的侵袭能力,Western blot检测细胞中MMP-2、MMP-9、N-cadherin、Vimentin、α-SMA和E-cadherin的表达。结果:过表达miRNA-100通过抑制m TOR的表达抑制肝癌细胞的迁移及侵袭能力,并通过下调肝癌细胞中MMP-2、MMP-9、N-cadherin、Vimentin和α-SMA的表达,上调E-cadherin的表达,阻抑上皮细胞-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition,EMT)过程的发生。结论:MicroRNA-100可能通过降低m TOR的表达抑制肝癌细胞的转移侵袭能力,并抑制上皮间质转化过程的发生。     

UBQLN4 is an ATM substrate that stabilizes the anti‐apoptotic proteins BCL2A1 and BCL2L10 in mesothelioma

ATM serine/threonine kinase (ATM; previously known as ataxia‐telangiectasia mutated) plays a critical role in maintaining genomic stability and regulates multiple downstream pathways, such as DNA repair, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. As a serine/threonine kinase, ATM has an array of downstream phosphorylation substrates, including checkpoint effector checkpoint kinase 2 (CHK2). ATM inhibits cell cycle progression by phosphorylating and activating CHK2, which plays an important role in the formation and development of tumors and participates in DNA repair responses after double‐stranded DNA breaks. In this study, we used a recently developed mammalian functional genetic screening system to explore a series of ATM substrates and their role in DNA damage to enhance our understanding of the DNA damage response. Ubiquilin 4 (UBQLN4), which belongs to the ubiquilin family characterized by its ubiquitin‐like (UBL) and ubiquitin‐associated (UBA) domains, was identified as a new substrate for ATM. UBQLN4 is involved in various intracellular processes, such as autophagosome maturation, p21 regulation, and motor axon morphogenesis. However, the biological function of UBQLN4 remains to be elucidated. In this study, we not only identified UBQLN4 as a substrate for ATM, but also found that UBQLN4 interacts with and stabilizes the anti‐apoptotic proteins Bcl‐2‐related protein A1 (BCL2A1) and Bcl‐2‐like protein 10 (BCL2L10) and prevents mesothelioma cell apoptosis in response to DNA damage. These findings expand our understanding of the role of UBQLN4 in mesothelioma and provide new insights into potential mesothelioma treatments targeting substrates for ATM.     

Asparaginyl endopeptidase (AEP) regulates myocardial apoptosis in response to radiation exposure via alterations in NRF2 activation

Radiation-induced heart disease (RIHD) leads to myocardial dysfunction and metabolic abnormalities in patients treated with thoracic irradiation which restricts the long-term survival benefits of radiotherapy. There is no specific or effective manner of intervention currently available. Asparaginyl endopeptidase (AEP) plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of cellular functions through regulating proteolytic cleavage as peptidase enzyme. We aimed to investigate the role of unique cardiac AEP in cardiac function by modulating key signaling elements in the myocardium. The murine heart was exposed to a single dose of 14 Gy radiation. Cellular signaling and apoptosis was analyzed in human and rat cardiomyocytes treated with various doses of radiation, we observed expression of AEP was increased by immunohistochemical staining in murine heart exposed to radiation. The AEP production along with its increased level of mRNA expression was associated with increased doses of radiation (0, 2, 5, 10 Gy) in cardiomyocytes. The myocardial cells transfected with AEP overexpression showed overall cellular viability enhancement, DNA damage inhibition, the foci formation of γ-H2AX suppressed and DNA repair enhancement significantly after radiation exposure. Small interfering RNA-mediated AEP knockdown was with reduced cardiomyocyte viability, elevated apoptotic rate, increased γ-H2AX foci formation and inhibited DNA repair as well after irradiation. After radiation exposure of 10 Gy, the expression of AEP increased in P53 overexpressing cardiomyocytes and decreased in the P53 knockdown cells, indicates that radiation-induced expression of AEP might be regulated by P53. Moreover, treatments with either AEP overexpression or knockdown showed enhanced NRF2 activity in the nuclear or suppressed NRF2 expression in the cytoplasm of myocardial cells after irradiation, respectively, defined a possible regulatory effect of AEP associated with diminished NRF2 translocation and activation by radiation exposure, including impair myocardium and myocardial apoptosis. These findings suggest that increased levels of AEP in failing myocardium after irradiation is mediated by P53 and regulate a novel pathway that involves NRF2 activation. AEP is essential for maintaining cellular redox homeostasis of cardiac function.     

利用CRISPR/Cas9系统对人A549肺癌细胞NRF2基因的稳定敲除及其功能研究

背景与目的：CNC-bZIP是核转录因子E2相关因子2［nuclear factor（erythroid-derived 2）-like 2,NRF2］近羧基端一个亮氨酸拉链结构,该区域是DNA结合以及NRF2与小分子肌腱纤维肉瘤（small masculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma,sMaf）蛋白结合形成二聚体所必需的区域,随后该区域与抗氧化反应元件（antioxidant response element,ARE）结合,激活NRF2下游靶基因的转录表达,从而增加细胞抗氧化应激能力。构建CRISPR/Cas9慢病毒系统,获得了A549细胞中NRF2基因稳定敲除株并进行了功能研究。方法：针对该结构上下游设计一对sgRNA,与pLenti CRISPR v2载体连接,通过包装慢病毒的方式构建A549稳定敲除细胞系。根据测序图谱及蛋白质印迹法（Western blot）验证敲除效果。然后通过实时荧光定量聚合酶链反应（real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction,RTFQ-PCR）、Western blot检测、克隆形成实验、细胞计数试剂盒（cell counting kit-8,CCK-8）、划痕实验、Transwell实验比较A549细胞株NRF2敲除与不敲除的功能表达。结果：显示A549肺癌细胞中NRF2基因稳定敲除株构建成功;NRF2敲除株下游靶基因mRNA表达及蛋白水平明显减少,且能明显降低A549肺癌细胞的增殖、迁移、侵袭能力。结论：利用CRISPR/Cas9慢病毒系统获得了高效永久NRF2基因敲除的肺癌细胞系,该基因敲除后A549肺癌细胞的增殖、迁移、侵袭能力都显著降低。     

p62 promotes bladder cancer cell growth by activating KEAP1/NRF2‐dependent antioxidative response

p62 is associated with 2 major cellular defense mechanisms against metabolic and oxidative stress, autophagy and the Kelch‐like ECH‐associated protein 1 (KEAP1)‐nuclear factor‐E2‐related factor 2 (NRF2) system. Recent studies indicate that the p62‐KEAP1‐NRF2 pathway promotes tumorigenesis and tumor growth mediated by NRF2‐dependent antioxidative response. However, whether p62 is involved in bladder cancer (BCa) development remains unknown. Here, we found that p62 is overexpressed in BCa tissue and several BCa cell lines. The knockdown of p62 inhibits BCa cell growth both in vitro and in vivo, with increased intracellular reactive oxygen species level. Mechanically, p62 activates NRF2 signaling by sequestrating KEAP1, which leads to the upregulation of antioxidant genes (Gclc, Gstm5, and Gpx2), thus protecting BCa cells from oxidative stress. Our findings indicate that p62 might be involved in the development of BCa and serve as a potential therapeutic target.     

Fbxo45‐mediated NP‐STEP46 degradation via K6‐linked ubiquitination sustains ERK activity in lung cancer

Lung cancer is one of the most threatening malignant tumors to human health. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)‐targeted therapy is a common and essential means for the clinical treatment of lung cancer. However, drug resistance has always affected the therapeutic effect and survival rate in non‐small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Tumor heterogeneity is a significant reason, yielding various drug resistance mechanisms, such as EGFR‐dependent or ‐independent extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1 and/or 2 (ERK1/2) activation in NSCLC. To examine whether this aberrant activation of ERK1/2 is related to the loss of function of its specific phosphatase, a series of in vitro and in vivo assays were performed. We found that F‐box/SPRY domain‐containing protein 1 (Fbxo45) induces ubiquitination of NP‐STEP₄₆ , an active form of striatal‐enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase, with a K6‐linked poly‐ubiquitin chain. This ubiquitination led to proteasome degradation in the nucleus, which then sustains the aberrant level of phosphorylated‐ERK (pERK) and promotes tumor growth of NSCLC. Fbxo45 silencing can significantly inhibit cell proliferation and tumor growth. Moreover, NSCLC cells with silenced Fbxo45 showed great sensitivity to the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) afatinib. Here, we first report this critical pERK maintenance mechanism, which might be independent of the upstream kinase activity in NSCLC. We propose that inhibiting Fbxo45 may combat the issue of drug resistance in NSCLC patients, especially combining with EGFR‐TKI therapy.     

Costunolide suppresses melanoma growth via the AKT/mTOR pathway in vitro and in vivo

Melanoma is the most common type of skin cancer and its incidence is rapidly increasing. AKT, and its related signaling pathways, are highly activated in many cancers including lung, colon, and esophageal cancers. Costunolide (CTD) is a sesquiterpene lactone that has been reported to possess neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties. However, the target and mechanism underlying its efficacy in melanoma have not been identified. In this study, we elucidated the mechanism behind the anti-cancer effect of CTD in melanoma in vitro and in vivo by identifying CTD as an AKT inhibitor. We first verified that p-AKT and AKT are highly expressed in melanoma patient tissues and cell lines. CTD significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of melanoma cells including SK-MEL-5, SK-MEL-28, and A375 that are overexpressed p-AKT and AKT proteins. We investigated the mechanism of CTD using a computational docking modeling, pull-down, and site directed mutagenesis assay. CTD directly bound to AKT thereby arresting cell cycle at the G1 phase, and inducing the apoptosis of melanoma cells. In addition, CTD regulated the G1 phase and apoptosis biomarkers, and inhibited the expression of AKT/mTOR/GSK3b/p70S6K/4EBP cascade proteins. After reducing AKT expression in melanoma cells, cell growth was significantly decreased and CTD did not showed further inhibitory effects. Furthermore, CTD administration suppressed tumor growth and weight in cell-derived xenograft mice models in vivo without body weight loss and inhibited the expression of Ki-67, p-AKT, and p70S6K in tumor tissues. In summary, our study implied that CTD inhibited melanoma progression in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we reported that CTD could affect melanoma growth by targeting AKT. Therefore, CTD has considerable potential as a drug for melanoma therapy.     

GET4 is a novel driver gene in colorectal cancer that regulates the localization of BAG6, a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling protein

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common types of cancer and a significant cause of cancer mortality worldwide. Further improvements of CRC therapeutic approaches are needed. BCL2‐associated athanogene 6 (BAG6), a multifunctional scaffold protein, plays an important role in tumor progression. However, regulation of BAG6 in malignancies remains unclear. This study showed that guided entry of tail‐anchored proteins factor 4 (GET4), a component of the BAG6 complex, regulates the intercellular localization of BAG6 in CRC. Furthermore, GET4 was identified as a candidate driver gene on the short arm of chromosome 7, which is often amplified in CRC, by our bioinformatics approach using the CRC dataset from The Cancer Genome Atlas. Clinicopathologic and prognostic analyses using CRC datasets showed that GET4 was overexpressed in tumor cells due to an increased DNA copy number. High GET4 expression was an independent poor prognostic factor in CRC, whereas BAG6 was mainly overexpressed in the cytoplasm of tumor cells without gene alteration. The biological significance of GET4 was examined using GET4 KO CRC cells generated with CRISPR‐Cas9 technology or transfected CRC cells. In vitro and in vivo analyses showed that GET4 promoted tumor growth. It appears to facilitate cell cycle progression by cytoplasmic enrichment of BAG6‐mediated p53 acetylation followed by reduced p21 expression. In conclusion, we showed that GET4 is a novel driver gene and a prognostic biomarker that promotes CRC progression by inducing the cytoplasmic transport of BAG6. GET4 could be a promising therapeutic molecular target in CRC.     

E2F1-mediated GINS2 transcriptional activation promotes tumor progression through PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has high morbidity and mortality rates. It is therefore imperative to study the underlying mechanism of HCC to identify potential prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Recently, GINS2 has been identified to be a cancer-promoting gene in different cancer types. Nevertheless, the exact mechanism of GINS2 in HCC remains to be elucidated. To systematically explore the significance of GINS2, we first assessed the relative expression of GINS2 in pan-cancers based on data obtained from the HCCDB, TIMER, and TCGA databases. Then, we explored the clinical significance of GINS2 in HCC through Kaplan-Meier method as well as univariate and multivariate cox regression analysis. Additionally, functional enrichment analysis of GINS2 was done through GO, KEGG, PPI network, and immune cell infiltration analyses. Functional experiments were also conducted to investigate the biological significance of GINS2 in HCC cell lines. Our research revealed that GINS2 is involved in HCC progression and highlighted its potential value as a crucial diagnostic and therapeutic target for HCC.     

EPHA2通过增强Akt/mTOR信号通路促进SGC-7901细胞的增殖

背景与目的：EPHA2能够促进胃癌细胞中Cyclin D1的表达及胃癌细胞的细胞周期进程,从而增强胃癌细胞的增殖能力,但EPHA2调控胃癌细胞中Cyclin D1的表达及胃癌细胞的细胞周期进程的分子机制依然不明确。Akt/mTOR信号通路能够通过促进胃癌细胞中Cyclin D1的表达及胃癌细胞的细胞周期进程增强胃癌细胞的增殖能力,且有研究表明EPHA2能够激活Akt/mTOR信号通路。基于此,该研究探讨了Akt/mTOR信号通路在EPHA2促胃癌细胞增殖中的作用。方法：采用蛋白[质]印迹法(Western blot)检测过表达EPHA2和敲低EPHA2表达对SGC-7901细胞中Akt、mTOR和4EBP1磷酸化的影响。使用Akt抑制剂MK2206和mTOR抑制剂RAD001分别处理转染空载体病毒的SGC-7901-NC细胞和过表达EPHA2的SGC-7901-EPHA2细胞,分别通过CCK8、流式细胞术和Western blot检测细胞增殖、细胞周期及周期相关蛋白Cyclin D1的表达。结果：过表达EPHA2增强SGC-7901细胞中Akt、mTOR和4EBP1的磷酸化,敲低EPHA2的表达抑制SGC-7901细胞中Akt、mTOR和4EBP1的磷酸化。MK2206和RAD001处理细胞时,EPHA2过表达对SGC-7901细胞增殖、细胞S期和Cyclin D1表达的促进作用被显著抑制。结论：EPHA2通过增强Akt/mTOR信号通路促进胃癌细胞SGC-7901的增殖能力,提示我们将来针对EPHA2高表达的胃癌患者或许可以采用Akt抑制剂和mTOR抑制剂予以个体化治疗。     

The transglutaminase 2 cancer cell survival factor maintains mTOR activity to drive an aggressive cancer phenotype

Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is an important cancer stem-like cell survival protein that is highly expressed in epidermal squamous cell carcinoma and drives an aggressive cancer phenotype. In the present study, we show that TG2 knockdown or inactivation results in a reduction in mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) level and activity in epidermal cancer stem-like cells which are associated with reduced spheroid formation, invasion, and migration, and reduced cancer stem cell and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) marker expression. Similar changes were observed in both cultured cells and tumors. mTOR knockdown or treatment with rapamycin phenocopies the reduction in spheroid formation, invasion, and migration, and cancer stem cell and EMT marker expression. Moreover, mTOR appears to be a necessary mediator of TG2 action, as a forced expression of constitutively active mTOR in TG2 knockdown cells partially restores the aggressive cancer phenotype and cancer stem cell and EMT marker expression. Tumor studies show that rapamycin reduces tumor growth and cancer stem cell marker expression and EMT. These studies suggest that TG2 stimulates mTOR activity to stimulate cancer cell stemness and EMT and drive aggressive tumor growth.     

PLOD2 promotes colorectal cancer progression by stabilizing USP15 to activate the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway

Procollagen-lysine, 2-oxoglutarate 5-dioxygenase 2 (PLOD2) has been reported as an oncogenic gene, affecting various malignant tumors, including endometrial carcinoma, osteosarcoma, and gastric cancer. These effects are mostly due to the enhanced deposition of collagen precursors. However, more studies need to be conducted on how its lysyl hydroxylase function affects cancers like colorectal carcinoma (CRC). Our present results showed that PLOD2 expression was elevated in CRC, and its higher expression was associated with poorer survival. Overexpression of PLOD2 also facilitated CRC proliferation, invasion, and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. In addition, PLOD2 interacted with USP15 by stabilizing it in the cytoplasm and then activated the phosphorylation of AKT/mTOR, thereby promoting CRC progression. Meanwhile, minoxidil was demonstrated to downregulate the expression of PLOD2 and suppress USP15, and the phosphorylation of AKT/mTOR. Our study reveals that PLOD2 plays an oncogenic role in colorectal carcinoma, upregulating USP15 and subsequently activating the AKT/mTOR pathway.