From chance to choice: The use of a verbal analogy in the communication of risk

In risk communication to patients, Medical Doctors frequently use analogies attempting to enhance the otherwise poor comprehension of small probabilities by laypeople. Two experiments examined the effects of the verbal analogy (asking patients to figure out the probability of an outcome by imagining the chance to draw a winning ball from a jar) on individuals' probability perception by means of seven-point Likert scales. Study 1 showed that the employment of the verbal analogy reduced the perceived likelihood of the hypothetical event under judgment both in the positive (winning a 1 million Euro lottery) and in the negative domain (contracting malaria travelling to Africa). In Study 2, two possible versions of the verbal analogy (forced vs. weak) were tested on the perceived risk of contracting hepatitis A travelling to Africa. Results indicated that individuals' risk perception was decreased by the analogy only in the forced condition. The authors discuss possible explanations for this effect.     

The effect of siblings and family dog ownership on children's independent mobility to neighbourhood destinations

Objective : To investigate the effect of sibling age, gender and dog ownership on children's independent mobility and how this varies according to the destination visited. Methods : Parents reported whether their child had an older sibling; if the child and older sibling were of the same gender; the number of older siblings; if they owned a dog; and whether their child was allowed to independently travel to school, friends’ or family house, park/oval/sporting field and local shop. Data were analysed for 181 children aged 8–15 years. Results : The strongest significant sibling effect for independently mobility to school, local shop and ≥3 destinations was for having an older sibling of the same gender (p≤0.05). For independent mobility to a friend's house and park, the strongest significant sibling effect was for having one older sibling (p≤0.05). Dog ownership was associated with increased odds of being independently mobile to ≥3 destinations (OR=2.43; 95%CI=1.03–5.74). Conclusions : Parents may be more likely to grant children licence to travel to local places if they are accompanied by an older sibling or the family dog. Implications : Understanding the effects of siblings and dog ownership on children's independent mobility will assist in identifying strategies through which independent mobility can be encouraged.     

Environmental correlates of adolescent active travel to school in Asia: An ecological study

ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine the association between country-level environmental correlates and the prevalence of active school travel (AST) in Asia and country-level differences in AST by age and sex.MethodsThis ecological study involved 31 Asian countries. Dependent variables were AST prevalence, AST prevalence difference by age, and by sex. Independent variables were country-level environmental correlates extracted using publicly available datasets, classified into physical and social environments. Association estimates of each dependent variable and each of the independent variables were calculated using univariate linear regression. All variables were standardized to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.ResultsResults showed that 1 standard deviation (SD) difference in urban population percentage, night-time light, secondary-school enrolment, and prevalence of adult insufficient physical activity were negatively associated with AST prevalence (SD difference: −0.44 (−0.78 to −0.09), −0.40 (−0.76 to −0.04), −0.39 (−0.74 to −0.04), and −0.40 (−0.76 to −0.03), respectively). A 1 SD difference in car per people was associated with a −0.46 (−0.84 to −0.09) difference of AST prevalence by age. A 1 SD difference in PM2.5 concentration and of prevalence of adult insufficient physical activity were associated with a difference of 0.38 (0.01–0.74) and 0.42 (0.03–0.80) difference of AST prevalence by sex.ConclusionsThis study shows that Asian countries with a greater number of people living in urban areas, lower levels of overall adult physical activity and higher levels of night-time light have a lower prevalence of adolescent AST. Country-level physical and social environmental correlates explained some of the regional variance in AST. Future policy actions and interventions for the region need to be contextually sensitive to the environmental correlates that vary between countries.     

Children's experiences of the journey between home and school: A qualitative synthesis using meta-ethnography

This paper uses meta-ethnography to synthesise qualitative and ethnographic studies of children's (aged 5–13) experiences of socio-material environments on their school journey. Most of the 21 papers (18 studies) identified from the systematic search were from high-income countries and used self-report qualitative methods. Our synthesis shows children can feel vulnerable, but also negotiate journeys and manage risks, enjoy shared and solitary mobility, and explore their material environments. School journeys offer children a place to learn and develop agency within their socio-material environments. Attending to these wider benefits of school journeys, alongside supporting children to develop active modes attuned to the risks associated with these journeys, could improve the reach and impact of active school travel initiatives.     

Promoting walking to school: results of a quasi-experimental trial

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of a combined intervention on children's travel behaviour, stage of behavioural change and motivations for and barriers to actively commuting to school. DESIGN: A quasi-experimental trial involving pre- and post-intervention mapping of routes to school by active and inactive mode of travel and surveys of "stage of behaviour change" and motivations for and barriers to actively commuting to school. INTERVENTION: The intervention school participated in a school-based active travel project for one school term. Active travel was integrated into the curriculum and participants used interactive travel-planning resources at home. The control school participated in before and after measurements but did not receive the intervention. SETTING: Two primary schools in Scotland with similar socioeconomic and demographic profiles. PARTICIPANTS: Two classes of primary 5 children and their families and teachers. MAIN RESULTS: Post intervention, the mean distance travelled to school by walking by intervention children increased significantly from baseline, from 198 to 772 m (389% increase). In the control group mean distance walked increased from 242 to 285 m (17% increase). The difference between the schools was significant (t (38) = -4.679, p<0.001 (95% confidence interval -315 to -795 m)). Post intervention, the mean distance travelled to school by car by intervention children reduced significantly from baseline, from 2018 to 933 m (57.5% reduction). The mean distance travelled to school by car by control children increased from baseline, from 933 to 947 m (1.5% increase). The difference in the change between schools was significant (t (32) = 4.282, p<0.001 (95% confidence interval 445 to 1255 m)). CONCLUSIONS: Intervention was effective in achieving an increase in the mean distance travelled by active mode and a reduction in the mean distance travelled by inactive mode on school journey.     

Explaining the social gradient in smoking and cessation: the peril and promise of social mobility

Smoking in high-income countries is now concentrated in poor communities whose relatively high smoking prevalence is explained by greater uptake but above all by lower quit rates. Whilst a number of barriers to smoking cessation have been identified, this is the first paper to situate cessation itself as a classed and cultural practice. Drawing on ethnographic research carried out in a working-class community in the North of England between 2012 and 2015, I theorise smoking cessation as a symbolic practice in relation to the affective experience of class and social mobility. I show that ambivalence about upward mobility as separation and loss translated into ambivalence about smoking cessation. The reason for this was that the social gradient in smoking operated dynamically at the level of the individual life course, i.e. smoking cessation followed upward mobility. A serious health problem was an appropriate reason to quit but older women continued to smoke despite serious health problems. This was linked to historical gender roles leading to women placing a low priority on their own health as well as the intergenerational reproduction of smoking through close affective links with smoking parents.     

The avian influenza pandemic: Discourses of risk,contagion and preparation in Australia

This paper examines the construction of avian influenza in Australian media and federal government policy, with a focus placed on discourses of contagion, preparedness and risk. The threat of an infectious disease outbreak, such as avian influenza, on social life is surrounded by a range of collective narratives which attempt to make it explicable. These narratives socially define the disease and provide explanations for its existence. The paper demonstrates that central to these narratives are depictions of the source of the outbreak and suggestions of appropriate responses to the threat. Methodologically, a narrative analysis of print media and government documents was conducted. This showed that conceptually both government and media discourses could be understood in terms of risk, contagion and blame. Furthermore, it was found that narratives linking the risk of avian influenza with globalised interconnectedness and contagion by the developing world underpin discourses of causation and frame the reactions to and preparation for a potential outbreak.     

Knowing the risk: relationships between risk behaviour and health knowledge

Communicating risk is a key public health strategy. The implicit assumptions are that the public interprets risk information in a logical fashion and adopts behavioural changes to reduce risk. We assessed risk behaviour, and knowledge and perception of voluntary and involuntary risks using an anonymous questionnaire completed by 472 students. Risk-taking behaviour was measured as the number of different risk behaviours undertaken in the previous 12 months. Knowledge and perception were measured by the extent to which subjects agreed with statements of risk-related information. These varied in complexity from simple statements linking a behaviour with a health risk to numerical statements describing the strength of such relationships. Risk-taking behaviour was highest amongst younger people, males, people whose parents were in non-manual occupations, and people who believed in God (risk-taking behaviour was not related to voting preference or birth order). Overall, knowledge was not significantly related to risk-taking behaviour (P=0.889). However, risk-taking was positively related to more accurate responses to numerical risk questions (P<0.001) and risk-takers were also more likely to perceive both voluntary and involuntary risks as less risky (P<0.05). At least in this cohort, more information about risk is not related to lower risk behaviour. In fact, those individuals with a better understanding of the precise risk associated with certain behaviours were more likely to be higher risk-takers while those who consistently over-estimated risks were low risk-takers. Overall, knowledge and perception of risk explained relatively little of the variance in behaviour. Although these findings need further examination within the general population, public health measures should not assume that information campaigns will necessarily lead to a reduction in risk behaviour.     

中小学生近视危险因素研究进展

中国中小学生近视率居高不下、不断攀升,且呈低龄化、重度化趋势;严重威胁学生的身心健康,已成为政府和全社会关注焦点。近视危险因素众多,发病机制目前仍未明确,且病程进展具有渐进、叠加和不可逆等特征。发现及控制近视的危险因素,对近视防控意义重大。以国内外近视相关的大量研究为基础,总结中小学生近视及危险因素的最新研究进展,以期为近视防控干预工作提供思路和科学依据。     

Danger from above? A quantitative study of perceptions of hazards from falling rockets in the Altai region of Siberia

Russian rocket launch sites are inland, unlike their European and American equivalents. Those living near to fallout zones from the Baikonur cosmodrome have expressed concern about apparent high levels of psychological ill health, which they attribute to the launches, linking it to either fear of falling debris or contamination by fuel residues. The aim of the research study on which this article is based was to quantify and explain the reported ill health, relating it to exposure to, concern about, and information on the launches. Drawing on literature on social amplification of risk, a quantitative survey was conducted among 1111 adults living in three areas around the fallout area. Psychological symptoms were measured on the SCL-90 scale, with mental health assessed using the GHQ-20. Relationships were assessed using regression and path analysis. The main findings were that those people living closer to the fallout area were no more likely to have symptoms but were more concerned about launches. Prompted concern was associated with distress, assessed by SCL-90 scores (but not consistently with GHQ-20) and seemed to amplify the association between other adverse perceptions of life and symptoms. There is a high level of distress in this region but it is not obviously associated with exposure to launches. In contrast, the existing process of communicating information appears to increase concerns and thus distress.     

Gender differences in occupational mobility and structure of employment in the British Civil Service

In all industrialized societies health status in adults has been found to vary with social position. Attempts to explain this are usually grouped under headings of artefact, material, lifestyle and selective mobility of the healthiest. Such attempts have to date been unsuccessful in fully accounting for this relationship, and whilst they have merit have left unconsidered the effects of the process whereby social stratification occurs. The present study is a prelude to subsequent studies that will endeavour to distinguish between three separate influences on health—the effects of current social position, the long term effects stemming from one's initial class position, and the effects of the processes governing mobility. The purpose of our present investigation is to describe patterns of occupational mobility, that will enable us to identify possible predictors of subsequent mobility and therefore to indicate to what extent mobility might be a process governed by social rules.The work presented in this paper comprises part of the Whitehall II study of occupational, social and lifestyle influences upon health in a Civil Service population. Using multiple regression techniques almost half the variation in mobility is modelled in terms of educational level, fathers' social class, gender, marital status, age on entry into the Civil Service, length of time in Civil Service employment and grade of entry into the Civil Service. Using estimates derived from this model it is suggested that a number of sub-groups within the Civil Service suffer adverse mobility (mobility appears particularly restricted for women and for those entering the Civil Service above 30 years of age). The results obtained suggest that the issue of obstructed opportunity at the workplace could become a focus for fruitful investigation, linking issues of personal autonomy, expectations and control to health. A number of methodological problems in this kind of work are considered together with discussion of how the model can be used to increase our understanding of mobility.     

Perceptions of risk in the post-Soviet world: A qualitative study of responses to falling rockets in the Altai region of Siberia

There is widespread concern among people living in some parts of Altai territory in Siberia about potential health effects from fallout from rockets launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Extensive research has so far failed to provide evidence to support these concerns. As a consequence, the problem has been labelled by Russian scientists as ‘collective psychosocial distress’ or ‘raketophobia’. The aim of this paper is to provide an understanding of the factors underlying popular concerns about rockets. The paper is based on data collected in 2006 using multiple methods (individual semi-structured interviews, natural group discussions, round tables and participant observation). Concerns related to the impact of the rocket launches among the local population were explored. The analytical framework is informed by discourse analysis and discursive psychology. The findings are that the processes of collective social construction amplify risks perceived to be associated with rocket launches. In the Altai context, this social amplification builds on a societal vulnerability triggered by the collapse of the Soviet ideology. The environmental concern provides opportunities for repressed debates to be expressed that emerge from culturally embedded frustrations and fears that would otherwise be ignored by the political agenda. Moreover, the signals that shape the perception of risk are intrinsic components of local information flows, so that the communication process between experts and policy-makers and the local population itself contributes to the amplification of perceived risks. Concern about the health effects of rockets can be traced to the conditions that existed when the USSR ceased to exist. An effective response must address these deep-seated issues.     

唐山市中小学校园暴力发生情况及影响因素分析

目的 了解河北省唐山市中小学校园暴力流行病学特征及危险因素,为加强唐山地区校园暴力干预措施提供科学依据。方法 采用自编问卷对1414名唐山市中小学生2008年4月-2009年4月暴力发生情况进行自填式问卷调查;采用SPSS11.5软件进行统计分析,应用χ²检验对施暴行为进行单因素分析,采用Logistic回归模型对中小学生施暴行为进行多元回归分析。结果 在1414名被调查者中,校园暴力发生率为53.0%,其中躯体暴力发生率为36.3%,心理暴力发生率为31.5%,性暴力发生率为5.5%;50.8%的学生曾遭受过暴力,16.7%的学生有过施暴行为;男女生施暴行为分别为21.7%和11.8%;多因素Logistic回归分析发现,有过暴力经历、目睹过暴力事件、支持暴力观点、有不良行为、家庭高收入的学生及男生对他人施暴的危险性更大(OR值分别为5.131,3.425,1.967,1.646,1.376,1.499)。结论 唐山市中小学校校园暴力发生率较高,校园暴力危险因素复杂,应引起学校和社会的关注并采取有效措施。     

Everyday behaviour and everyday risk: An approach to study people's responses to frequently encountered food related health risks

Food consumption constitutes behaviour that is carried out on a daily basis. The risks and benefits associated with such behaviours are often small, and the time and effort people are, consequently, willing to invest in behavioural decisions are limited. Instead, experience, in the form of an integrated evaluation of past behaviours, may serve as a predictor for future behaviour, allowing reasonable choices to be made with limited effort. This paper discusses the characteristics of daily occurring risks and suggests a model of how prior experience can accumulate and play a role in acting while exposed to daily risk. The core of the approach is a feedback loop that adjusts the current situation until a preset situation is reached. This is based on integrated past experiences and is, thus, continually updated by new experiences. To establish such a feedback mechanism, emotions are argued to play a vital role as an integrator for different types of information, such as perceptual, cognitive and physiological information. This approach may help in understanding how consumers deal with risks in daily (food-handling) practices.     

湘西州土家族与苗族中学生健康危险行为分析

目的了解湘西土家族苗族自治州的土家族和苗族中学生健康危险行为现状及差异,为少数民族地区健康教育有效开展提供依据。方法分层随机整群抽取湘西州凤凰、泸溪、永顺和龙山县8所中学的2 094名土家族和苗族中学生,对其吸烟、饮酒、非故意伤害、故意伤害、不良饮食、缺乏体育锻炼、精神成瘾等健康危险行为进行问卷调查。结果土家族和苗族中学生尝试吸烟报告率为25.35%~70.14%,13岁以前开始吸烟报告率为12.56%~48.73%,尝试饮酒报告率为48.60%~77.74%,学习压力大报告率为17.09%~38.59%,不喝牛奶报告率为28.95%~54.01%,缺乏体育锻炼报告率为58.03%~72.35%;土家族中学生尝试饮酒(70.05%)、学习压力大(31.09%)、做功课≥3 h/d(21.47%)的报告率均高于苗族,苗族中学生现在吸烟(22.42%)、严重吸烟(3.06%)、现在饮酒(32.36%)、重度饮酒(14.78%)、到非安全场所游泳(38.09%)、常喝饮料(18.22%)、常吃甜食(36.69%)、常吃快餐(5.10%)、不喝牛奶(46.11%)、不吃早餐(10.57%)、经常看电视(51.08%)的报告率均高于土家族,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论针对土家族和苗族中学生不同群体健康危险行为发生的不同突出问题提出相应的干预措施,以预防和控制健康危险行为的发生。     

Jumping off and being careful: children's strategies of risk management in everyday life

This article addresses the complexity of children's risk landscapes through an ethnography of 10- to 12-year-old Danish children. The data revealed how children individually and collectively engaged with risk in their everyday activities. The children assessed risks in relation to their perceptions of their health as strength and control, negotiated the conditions of playing, and attuned their responses to situations of potential social and physical conflict. In the paper this risk engagement is illustrated in a variety of contexts: children's decisions to wear or not to wear a bicycle helmet; playing and games and routine pushing and shoving at school. In looking after themselves, children negotiate rules of participation and they safeguard personal and collective interests. Gender differences in these processes are addressed and discussed. The article argues that risk engagement is an important resource through which children also learn from their own mistakes. This is a necessary learning process when children engage with their personal health and safety. The article critically discusses different sociological frameworks and shows the significance of the study for the growing literature on understanding the meaning of risk in childhood.     

Genetic risk online and offline: Two ways of being susceptible to blood clots

Social science research into online health groups often studies characteristics of Internet communication, such as anonymity and ability to connect individuals across distance, which facilitate unique modes of support between people with similar illnesses. This article compares discussion in an online group for people with a genetic susceptibility for deep vein thrombosis with offline interviews with individuals with the same condition. Active participants in the online group were mostly acutely or chronically ill, and the intense discussion revolved around the use of anticoagulant medications with potentially serious side-effects. Most of the individuals interviewed offline were healthy and described themselves as ‘blasé’ about the condition, even if they were sometimes poorly informed. The findings indicate that online groups do indeed support their members but the support may focus on specific practices, such as the use of drugs. Drawing on multi-sited ethnography this article suggests studying online groups in relation to other possible ways of relating to health. Discerning what kinds of health identities and practices online groups cultivate is particularly important when investigating new ‘at risk’ conditions, which open up a broad range of possible identities and preventive actions.     

中学生道路交通事故流行特征及影响因素分析

目的探讨中学生交通事故的流行特征及其危险因素。方法整群抽取山东省济南市7所中学在校学生为调查对象,自行设计调查问卷,收集其基本信息以及2005年1月1日~2005年12月31日发生的交通事故信息。采用SPSS11.0软件分析该人群交通事故流行特征,采用Logistic回归分析交通事故危险因素。结果中学生交通事故年发生率为2.28%,男女生交通事故发生率之比为1.81:1。自行车事故在中学生交通事故中占71.6%,但只有39.0%的人在骑车上马路之前专门学习过交通规则。交通事故伤害以轻微伤害为主,91.2%在门诊处理,仅13.4%的事故由交警处理,8.2%的事故当事人得到保险理赔。单因素及多因素Logistic回归分析显示,男生、上学途中过马路次数多的学生发生交通事故的风险较高。结论中学生交通事故年发生率约为2%,自行车事故应予以重视。性别、上学途中过马路的次数是交通事故的主要影响因素。     

The transition from school to employment for young people with acquired brain injury: Parent and student perceptions

Perceptions of young people with acquired brain injury (ABI) and their parents regarding transition from school to employment was explored using five focus groups comprising young people and parents. The focus groups addressed participants' perceptions of school integration, development of future goals, strategies needed to reach these goals, and hindrances experienced. Most of these young people appeared to have had a general lack of support from allied health and educational professionals throughout the continuum of hospital to school, and school to work transitions. All parents reported high levels of stress related to their child's schooling and future employment, and many young people also reported vast unmet needs related to both the present and the future.