Role of Facet Joints in Chronic Low Back Pain in the Elderly: A Controlled Comparative Prevalence Study

Abstract: Evaluation of the age related prevalence of persistent low back pain has been estimated to be consistently higher in the elderly compared to the younger population. Facet joints have been shown to be the cause of chronic low back pain in 15% to 45% of the patients in controlled studies. Prevalence of facet joint mediated pain has not been studied in the elderly. The study population consisted of 100 patients. Group I consisted of 50 patients that were 64 years of age or younger. Group II consisted of 50 patients 65 years of age or older. The patients were randomly allocated into 1 of the 2 groups. Facet joints were investigated with diagnostic blocks initially using lidocaine 1% followed by bupivacaine 0.25%, usually 2 weeks apart.
The prevalence of facet joint mediated pain was determined to be 30% in the adults and 52% in the elderly, which was significantly higher with a false positive rate of 26% in adults and 33% in the elderly.
In conclusion, the results of this study show that facet joint mediated pain is a significant problem in all patients suffering with chronic low back pain with the prevalence of 52% in the elderly and 30% in adults.     

A Modified Posterolateral Approach for Radiofrequency Denervation of the Medial Branch of the Cervical Segmental Nerve in Cervical Facet Joint Pain Based on Anatomical Considerations

The cervical facet joints, also called the zygapophyseal joints, are a potential source of neck pain (cervical facet joint pain). The cervical facet joints are innervated by the cervical medial branches (CMBs) of the cervical segmental nerves. Cervical facet joint pain has been shown to respond to multisegmental radiofrequency denervation of the cervical medial branches. This procedure is performed under fluoroscopic guidance. Currently, three approaches are described and used. Those three techniques of radiofrequency treatment of the CMBs, classified on the base of the needle trajectory toward the anatomical planes, are as follows: the posterolateral technique, the posterior technique, and the lateral technique. We describe the three techniques with their advantages and disadvantages. Anatomical studies providing a topographic anatomy of the course of the CMBs are reviewed. We developed a novel approach based on the observed strengths and weaknesses of the three currently used approaches and based on recent anatomical findings. With this fluoroscopic‐guided approach, there is always bone (the facet column) in front of the needle, which makes it safer, and the insertion point is easier to determine without the risk of positioning the radiofrequency needle too dorsally.     

腰椎小关节内注射倍他米松治疗腰椎小关节病变所致慢性腰痛

目的：评估C型臂X光机引导下腰椎小关节内注射倍他米松对腰椎小关节病变所致慢性腰痛的疗效。方法：腰痛时间长于3个月,腰痛症状和体征符合腰椎小关节病变临床表现,经影像学和小关节内注射局麻药诊断性治疗后诊断为腰椎小关节病变的40例患者随机分为小关节注射组（n=20）和消炎镇痛药组（n=20）。小关节注射组患者在C型臂X光机引导下行腰椎小关节内注射倍他米松,消炎镇痛药组患者口服双氯芬酸钠。腰痛程度采用视觉模拟评分法（visual analogue scale,VAS）评分。观察时间点定为治疗前（T0）和治疗后3个月（T1）。主要观察患者的生命体征和VAS评分。根据治疗过程中VAS改善程度统计疗效（分为显效、有效和无效）。结果：治疗后3个月注射组总有效率为92%,消炎镇痛药组总有效率为46%;注射组显效率为74%,消炎镇痛药组显效率为26%。注射组的总有效率和显效率均显著高于消炎镇痛药组（P〈0.01）。结论：C型臂X光机引导下腰椎小关节内注射倍他米松能有效缓解腰椎小关节病变所致慢性腰痛,疗效优于口服药物治疗。     

Prevalence and Predictors of Chronic Postsurgical Pain in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Emerging research suggests that pain may persist longer-term for many children after major surgery, with significant effects on their health outcomes. This systematic review identified the prevalence of chronic postsurgical pain (CPSP) in children after surgery, and determined presurgical biomedical and psychosocial risk factors associated with CPSP prevalence or severity. Prospective studies assessing CPSP 3 to 12 months after surgery in children 6 to 18 years of age published in English in MedLine, EMBASE, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews since 1996 were eligible for inclusion. Of 16,084 abstracts yielded by the search, 123 full articles were assessed for eligibility, and 12 studies were included in the review. Overall quality of included studies assessed using the Quality in Prognostic Studies tool was low. On the basis of 4 studies with a total of 628 participants across all surgery types, median prevalence of CPSP across studies was 20% (25th percentile = 14.5%, 75th percentile = 38%) at 12 months after surgery. Presurgical pain intensity, child anxiety, child pain coping efficacy, and parental pain catastrophizing were the only presurgical factors identified as predictive of CPSP. Biological and medical factors assessed were not associated with CPSP in any study. Well designed studies examining prevalence and predictors of CPSP are critically needed in children.

Intracranial Hypotension Following Motor Vehicle Accident: An Overlooked Cause of Post‐Traumatic Head and Neck Pain?

Abstract:   Motor vehicle accidents result in many patients with chronic head and neck pain, some of which meet the criteria for a "whiplash syndrome." The cervical zygapophysial joint synovium, muscular, and ligamentous strains and other anatomical sites are often implicated in the pathophysiology of these cases. Some patients have a characteristic constellation of vague neurological symptoms, often including headache, posterior neck discomfort, dizziness, nausea, and sometimes visual changes. Recently presented research has noted that some patients who have a whiplash-associated disorder have imaging findings consistent with a low-pressure cerebrospinal fluid leak. Some of these patients respond favorably to high-volume epidural blood patch. The following case presentation focuses on the differential diagnosis of a post-traumatic headache syndrome, specific imaging findings, and treatment strategies.     

Morphologic Evaluation of Cervical and Lumbar Facet Joints: Intra‐Articular Facet Block Considerations

Study Design: Needle orientations for lumbar and cervical facet injection were measured in cadavers and compared with facet angles measured on magnetic resonance images (MRIs). Objectives: To establish facet orientation relative to clinical procedures of a facet joint block in the cervical and lumbar spine. Methods: Needle orientation angles were measured from 20 unembalmed human cadaveric specimens (13 cervical and 7 lumbar). Spinal needles were inserted into the midpoints of the facet joint spaces from C3 to C7 and L1 to L5. Needle trajectories were measured with an optical tracking system. For comparison, facet angles from 100 clinical MRIs of lumbar spines were also measured. Facet orientations on MRIs were measured at their intersection with the transverse plane, and angles were quantified using image analysis software. Results: Typical angles for insertion of the needle into the cervical facets were oriented closer to the coronal plane, whereas insertion angles for lumbar needles were oriented closer to the sagittal plane. Relative to the sagittal plane, the mean cervical angle was 72 degrees and the mean lumbar angle was 33 degrees. The insertion points of the cervical facets were a mean of 29 mm from the midsagittal plane compared with a mean of 22 mm for the lumbar facets. MRI‐based facet joint angles correlated poorly with actual injection angles, which were overestimated 5 to 23 degrees, depending on the lumbar level. Conclusions: Knowledge of the quantitative anatomy of the facets may help improve clinical diagnosis and treatment. These data also may aid in constructing more realistic computer simulations.     

Radiofrequency and Pulsed Radiofrequency Treatment of Chronic Pain Syndromes: The Available Evidence

There are currently 6 reviews on (pulsed) radiofrequency (RF) for the management of spinal pain. Two reviews on interventional pain management techniques in general also discuss RF. The outcomes of those reviews depend on the type of studies included and the opinion of the reviewers, which may result in different evidence levels. Radiofrequency denervation at the cervical and lumbar level has produced the most solid evidence. The differences in treatment outcome registered in the 5 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) regarding lumbar facet denervation can be attributed to differences in patient selection and/or inappropriate technique. There is not sufficient evidence supporting the use of RF facet denervation for the management of cervicogenic headache. The studies examining the management of cervical radicular pain suggest a comparable efficacy for RF and pulsed RF (PRF). The PRF treatment is supposed to be safer and therefore should be preferred. The superiority of RF treatment adjacent to the lumbar dorsal root ganglion for the management of lumbar radicular pain has not been demonstrated in an RCT. Information regarding RF treatment of sacroiliac joint pain is accumulating. No randomized sham‐controlled trials on the value of RF treatment of the Gasserian ganglion for the management of idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia have been published. One RCT indicates superiority of RF over PRF for the management of idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia. Future research to confirm or deny the efficacy of (P)RF should be conducted in carefully selected patient populations. The tests used for patient inclusion in such a trial could potentially help the clinician in selecting patients for this type of treatment. The value of PRF treatment of the peripheral nerves also needs to be confirmed in well‐designed trials.     

Postoperative Pain Trajectories in Chronic Pain Patients Undergoing Surgery: The Effects of Chronic Opioid Pharmacotherapy on Acute Pain

For 2 weeks following surgery, 55 patients with preexisting chronic pain (CP) reported daily postoperative pain with movement and at rest. Of these, 30 CP patients used opioid pharmacotherapy for CP management and 25 did not. We modeled pain resolution in each patient using a linear fit so that each patient yielded 2 scores for each pain rating: 1) an intercept, or initial level of pain, immediately after surgery; and 2) a slope, or rate of pain resolution. The patients not using opioid pharmacotherapy had a mean pain with movement intercept of 5.4 and a slope of −.20, while the patients using opioid pharmacotherapy had a significantly higher mean intercept of 7.68 (P = .001) and a slope of −.21, sustaining higher pain levels over days. The opioid pharmacotherapy patients had the same rate of pain resolution as the other CP patients, and both groups resolved their pain more slowly than normal surgery patients. Preexisting CP may predispose a patient undergoing surgery to a slower rate of postoperative pain resolution. Chronic pain patients who use opioids share this predisposition but in addition, they are at risk for markedly higher postoperative pain across the entire pain resolution trajectory.

Perspective

This is an observational rather than a randomized controlled study, and as such is less definitive. Nonetheless, these findings are consistent with those of animal studies showing that prolonged exposure to opioids can produce opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Patients with opioid pharmacotherapy for chronic pain who undergo surgery merit special attention for acute pain management.     

Head Posture and Neck Pain of Chronic Nontraumatic Origin: A Comparison Between Patients and Pain-Free Persons

Silva AG, Punt TD, Sharples P, Vilas-Boas JP, Johnson MI. Head posture and neck pain of chronic nontraumatic origin: a comparison between patients and pain-free persons.

Objective

To compare standing head posture measurements between patients with nontraumatic neck pain (NP) and pain-free individuals.

Design

Single-blind (assessor) cross-sectional study.

Setting

Hospital and general community.

Participants

Consecutive patients (n=40) with chronic nontraumatic NP and age- and sex-matched pain-free participants (n=40).

Interventions

Not applicable.

Main Outcome Measures

Three angular measurements: the angle between C7, the tragus of the ear, and the horizontal; the angle between the tragus of the ear, the eye, and the horizontal; and the angle between the inferior margins of the right and the left ear and the horizontal were calculated through the digitization of video images.

Results

NP patients were found to have a significantly smaller angle between C7, the tragus, and the horizontal, resulting in a more forward head posture than pain-free participants (NP, mean ± SD, 45.4°±6.8°; pain-free, mean ± SD, 48.6°±7.1°; P<.05; confidence interval [CI] for the difference between groups, 0.9°-6.3°). Dividing the population according to age into younger (≤50y) and older (>50y) revealed an interaction, with a statistically significant difference in head posture for younger participants with NP compared with younger pain-free participants (NP, mean ± SD, 46.1°±6.7°; pain-free, mean ± SD, 51.8°±5.9°; P<.01; CI for the difference between groups, 1.8°-9.7°) but no difference for the older group (NP, mean ± SD, 44.8°±7.1°; pain-free, mean ± SD, 45.1°±6.7°; P>.05; CI for the difference between groups, -4.9°-4.2°). No other differences were found between patients and pain-free participants.

Conclusions

Younger patients with chronic nontraumatic NP were shown to have a more forward head posture in standing than matched pain-free participants. However, the difference, although statistically significant, was perhaps too small to be clinically meaningful.     

The Initiation of Chronic Opioids: A Survey of Chronic Pain Patients

This study reports the results of a researcher-administered survey with 115 patients receiving chronic opioid therapy (>90 days) to obtain information regarding how chronic opioid therapy was started. Chronic opioids were started after surgery (27.0%, 95% confidence interval [CI], 18.5–35.5) or for the treatment of acute injury-related pain (27.0%, 95% CI, 18.5–35.5). Many who initiated opioid therapy after surgery reported postoperative complications (61.3%, 95% CI, 50.8–71.8) and many with injury-related pain reported follow-up corrective surgery (58.1%, 95% CI, 47.5–68.7), which led to the continuation of opioids. A large percentage of patients had concurrent depression (43.5%, 95% CI, 34.0–53.0) and anxiety (23.5%, 95% CI, 15.3–31.7). Many participants had a medical history of aberrant drug-related behavior (32.5%, 95% CI, 23.5–41.5) and self-reported history of addiction (21.7%, 95% CI, 13.7–29.7). Almost one-quarter reported taking opioids for a different indication than that for which opioids were started (95% CI, 26.6–45.0). Patients receiving long-term opioid therapy often transitioned to chronic use after starting opioids for the short-term treatment of postoperative or injury-related pain. It is not evident if a clear decision to continue opioids on a chronic basis was made. This survey provides insight as to how chronic opioid therapy is started, and may suggest opportunities for improved patient selection for opioid therapy.

Previous Mental Disorders and Subsequent Onset of Chronic Back or Neck Pain: Findings From 19 Countries

Associations between depression/anxiety and pain are well established, but its directionality is not clear. We examined the associations between temporally previous mental disorders and subsequent self-reported chronic back/neck pain onset, and investigated the variation in the strength of associations according to timing of events during the life course, and according to gender. Data were from population-based household surveys conducted in 19 countries (N?=?52,095). Lifetime prevalence and age of onset of 16 mental disorders according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, and the occurrence and age of onset of back/neck pain were assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Survival analyses estimated the associations between first onset of mental disorders and subsequent back/neck pain onset. All mental disorders were positively associated with back/neck pain in bivariate analyses; most (12 of 16) remained so after adjusting for psychiatric comorbidity, with a clear dose-response relationship between number of mental disorders and subsequent pain. Early-onset disorders were stronger predictors of pain; when adjusting for psychiatric comorbidity, this remained the case for depression/dysthymia. No gender differences were observed. In conclusion, individuals with mental disorder, beyond depression and anxiety, are at higher risk of developing subsequent back/neck pain, stressing the importance of early detection of mental disorders, and highlight the need of assessing back/neck pain in mental health clinical settings.

Chronic Diseases in the European Union: The Prevalence and Health Cost Implications of Chronic Pain

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study was to assess recent data on the prevalence of chronic pain as part of chronic diseases; the prevalence of chronic pain as a chronic condition in its own right; the costs attributed to chronic pain; and the European Union (EU) policies to addressing chronic pain. Recent literature was reviewed for data on the prevalence and cost implications of chronic pain in the EU. Following on from an earlier systematic review, 8 databases were searched for prevalence and 10 for cost information from 2009 to 2011 and relevant EU organizations were contacted. Ten cost and 29 prevalence studies were included from the 142 full papers screened. The general adult population reported an average chronic pain prevalence of 27%, which was similar to those for common chronic conditions. Fibromyalgia had the highest unemployment rate (6%; Rivera et al., Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2009;27[Suppl 56]:S39–S45) claims for incapacity benefit (up to 29.9%; Sicras-Mainar et al., Arthritis Res Ther. 2009;11:R54), and greatest number of days of absence from work (Rivera et al., Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2009;27[Suppl 56]:S39–S45). Chronic pain is common and the total population cost is high. Despite its high impact, chronic pain as a condition seems to have had little specific policy response. However, there does appear to be sufficient evidence to at least make addressing chronic pain a high priority alongside other chronic diseases as well as to conduct more research, particularly regarding cost.