The deep plantar arch in humans constitution and topography

Abstract The integrity of the various structures within the feet depends on their blood supply. Lesions of the feet often require revascularization, which if successful avoids the need for amputation. To provide greater anatomical detail to aid vascular surgery and imaging, the anatomy and constitution of the deep plantar arch was studied in 50 adult cadaveric feet. The arteries of the foot were injected with red neoprene latex and dissected under magnification. The deep plantar arch, present in all feet, was the result of anastomosis between the deep plantar artery and the deep branch of the lateral plantar artery. The deep plantar artery was predominant in 72% of specimens (Type I arches) and the lateral plantar artery in 22% (Type II), with the contribution being equal in 6% (Type III). The medial plantar artery contributed to the medial segment of the deep plantar arch by its deep branch in 12% of specimens. The distance between the deep plantar arch and each interdigital commissure was generally constant, averaging 29% of total foot length. The deep plantar arch was located in the middle third of the foot in all specimens, being in the distal part of this third in 90%. The deep plantar arch is, therefore formed mainly by the deep plantar artery, a branch of the dorsal artery of foot its location can be estimated if foot length is known.     

足内缘动脉弓为蒂的足内侧岛状皮瓣应用解剖

目的　为足内侧岛状皮瓣修复足底外侧皮肤缺损提供解剖学依据。   方法　35侧成年尸体足标本,经动脉灌注红色乳胶,在手术显微镜下(×10)解剖观测母展肌上缘动脉弓与足底内侧动脉深支内侧支吻合的位置、外径及长度。  结果  　母展肌上缘动脉弓与足底内侧动脉深支内侧支在内侧楔骨内侧有一较恒定的吻合,并把这一吻合支暂命名为足内缘动脉弓。形成足内缘动脉弓占82.8%（29侧）,吻合处外径为(0.65±0.21)mm,长度为（2.63±0.71）mm;未发现吻合动脉弓占17.2%（6侧）。  结论　以足内缘动脉弓为蒂的足内侧岛状皮瓣可以修复足底外侧皮肤缺损。     

以足外缘动脉弓为蒂足背外侧岛状皮瓣的解剖学研究

目的　为扩大足背外侧岛状皮瓣的手术方式提供解剖学依据。 方法　33侧成尸下肢标本,经动脉灌注红色乳胶后在手术显微镜下(×10)解剖,观测足背外侧动脉链与足底外侧动脉的吻合及吻合弓的位置,外径,长度。 结果 足背外侧动脉链与足底外侧动脉有3个较恒定的吻合。跗外侧动脉在第5跖骨粗隆后缘发出1条动脉与足底外侧动脉的吻合,命名为足外缘第1动脉弓,起点外径(0.7±0.1)　mm,占54.5%(18侧);外踝后动脉跟外侧支与足底外侧动脉在外踝前缘下方和外踝后缘下方有2个吻合支,命名为足外缘第2动脉弓和足外缘第3动脉弓,起点外径分别为(0.9±0.1)mm和 (1.0±0.2)mm,分别占　88.0%（29侧）和78.8%（26侧）。 结论　以足外缘动脉弓为蒂的足背外侧岛状皮瓣可修复足底外侧,跟外侧的皮肤缺损。     

展肌上缘动脉弓的分型及其临床意义

目的　对 展肌上缘动脉弓的形成进行分型，为以　展肌上缘动脉弓为蒂逆行足底内侧皮瓣的临床应用提供解剖学基础。 方法 在81例足动脉铸型标本和2只动脉灌注红色乳胶成人新鲜下肢标本上观察　展肌上缘动脉弓的形成、走形与分布。 结果　根据　展肌上缘动脉弓的形成将其分为3型：Ⅰ型.内踝前动脉与跗内侧动脉型：主要由内踝前动脉、跗内侧动脉及其分支形成，占22.9%（19例）。Ⅱ型.足底内侧动脉浅支型：主要由足底内侧动脉浅支及其分支形成，占3.6%（3例）。Ⅲ型.混合型：由足底内侧动脉浅支与内踝前动脉、跗内侧动脉及其分支相互吻合形成。根据吻合形式的不同，又将其分为两个亚型，Ⅲ1型.直接吻合型：内踝前动脉、跗内侧动脉发出后直接与足底内侧动脉浅支及其分支吻合形成，占48.2%（40例）；Ⅲ2型.间接吻合型：内踝前动脉、跗内侧动脉发出后与足底内侧动脉浅支及其分支相互吻合成环形，占24.1%（20例）。 结论　根据　展肌上缘动脉弓形成的不同分为内踝前动脉与跗内侧动脉型、足底内侧动脉浅支型和混合型。其中混合型又分为直接吻合型和间接吻合型两种亚型。     

足底的血管构筑与跖弓皮瓣、肌皮瓣对足跟缺损的修复

目的：用跖弓皮瓣、肌皮瓣足跟缺损、提供足底三套血管网分布特点的解剖学依据。方法：在２０例福尔马林、４例红色乳胶灌注的成人尸体标本上、观察足底内、外侧动脉的起始、行径、分支及其吻合情况。结果：足底共有三套血管网供血：１．足底内侧动脉的内、外侧支在嘴展肌深面分支分布,形成足底内侧血管网。２．足底内侧动脉外侧支与足底外侧动脉的分支在足底腱膜与趾短屈肌之间吻合形成足底浅弓。３．足底内侧动脉的内侧支与足底外     

趾足底固有动脉趾端动脉弓及其分支的显微解剖

目的　解剖观测趾足底固有动脉趾端动脉弓及其分支的解剖学特点。 方法　选取新鲜成人足标本8只,分别经足背动脉灌注红色乳胶,对第2趾趾足底固有动脉进行显微解剖,观察趾足底固有动脉弓的出现概率,位置及其口径,趾端动脉弓发出的弓上动脉的起始部位,走行方向,分支数目及血管口径情况。 结果　第2趾趾足底固有动脉趾端动脉弓恒定,动脉弓的外径为0.5~0.8 mm,平均外径为0.64 mm,动脉弓距趾端的距离为9.5~13.0 mm,平均为11.1 mm。动脉弓上发出5支恒定的分支,即趾端弓上动脉,我们将其命名为第1~5支趾端弓上动脉（由胫侧至腓侧）。 结论 第2趾趾端动脉弓及其发出的弓上动脉解剖恒定,可以采用弓上动脉为蒂的微型轴型皮瓣改善第2足趾再造后外形。     

Anatomical study of the communicating branches between the medial and lateral plantar nerves

The plantar areas of the foot have specific biomechanical characteristics and play a distinct role in balance and standing. For the forefoot surgeon, knowledge of the variations in the anatomy of communicating branches is important for plantar reconstruction, local injection therapy and an excision of interdigital neuroma. The anatomy of the communicating branches of the plantar nerves between the fourth and third common plantar digital nerves in the foot were studied in 50 adult men cadaveric feet. A communicating branch was present between the third and fourth intermetatarsal spaces nerves in all eight left feet and in six right feet (overall, 28%), and absent in 36 (72%). A communicating branch was found in 14 ft. Ten of the 14 communications were from the lateral to the medial plantar nerve. The length of the communicating branch ranged from 8 to 56 mm (average 16.4 mm) and its diameter was 0.2–0.6 times of the fourth common plantar digital nerve. The angle of the communicating branch with the common plantar digital nerve from which it originated was less than 30° in 11 ft, 30–59° in 27 ft, 60–80° in 8 ft, and more than 80° in 4 ft. Classification of the branch is based on the branching pattern of the communicating branch and explains variations in plantar sensory innervations. We think that the perpendicular coursing communicating branch is at higher risk to be severed during surgery.     

足背外侧动脉链岛状皮瓣的应用解剖

目的　探讨足背外侧动脉链的组成,为施行足背外侧动脉链岛状皮瓣手术提供解剖依据。 方法　用48侧成尸足,解剖观测外踝后动脉跟外侧支、外踝前动脉降支、跗外侧动脉与第四跖背动脉的外径、走行、吻合和分布范围。 结果　外踝后动脉跟外侧支为腓动脉的终末支,外径（1.0±0.3）mm。外踝前动脉降支外径（1.3±0.3）mm,沿外踝前缘向下走行,在外踝尖的水平分为前、后支,后支与跟外侧支吻合,占97.9%,吻合处的外径（0.8±0.3）mm;前支与跗外侧动脉吻合,占91.6%,吻合处外径（0.6±0.2）mm;跗外侧动脉发出分支与弓形动脉或第4跖背动脉吻合,占95.8%,吻合处的外径（0.6±0.2）mm。足背外侧皮神经与足背中间皮神经司足背外侧皮肤的感觉。 结论　上述4条动脉吻合形成足背外侧动脉链,扩大了足背外侧皮瓣的切取面积,增加了临床应用的灵活性。     

Arterial anatomy of the hallucal sesamoids

The aim of this study was to analyze the arterial supply of the sesamoid bones of the hallux. Twenty‐two feet from adult cadavers were injected with epoxide resin or an acrylic polymer in methyl methacrylate (Acrifix®) and subsequently processed by two slice plastination methods and the enzyme maceration technique. Afterwards, the arterial supply of the sesamoid bones was studied. The first plantar metatarsal artery provided a medial branch to the medial sesamoid bone. The main branch of the first plantar metatarsal artery continued its course distally along the lateral side of the lateral sesamoid and supplied it. The supplying arteries penetrated the sesamoid bones on the proximal, plantar, and distal sides. The analysis and cataloging of the microvascular anatomy of the sesamoids revealed the first plantar metatarsal artery as the main arterial source to the medial and lateral sesamoid bones. In addition, the first plantar metatarsal artery ran along the lateral plantar side of the lateral sesamoid bone, suggesting that this artery is at increased risk during soft‐tissue procedures such as hallux valgus surgery. Clin. Anat. 22:755–760, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

吻合足底内侧动脉浅支足底内侧皮瓣移植修复手部缺损的应用解剖

目的为以足底内侧动脉浅支及其皮支为蒂游离足底内侧皮瓣修复手部缺损提供解剖学基础。方法在20侧成人下肢标本、6只灌注红色乳胶成人新鲜足标本及10侧下肢动脉铸型标本上解剖观测了足底内侧动脉浅支足底内侧皮支起始部位、走行、长度、外径、分支分布及吻合。结果足底内侧动脉浅支足底内侧皮支于舟骨粗隆后(1.5±0.4)cm下方发出,向前下斜行至足底内侧皮肤;该皮支长(2.8±0.2)cm,外径(0.8±0.2)mm。结论①足底内侧皮瓣可以是足底内侧动脉浅支足底内侧皮支或足底内侧动脉深支足底皮穿支为供血。②足底内侧皮瓣游离移植适用于手掌及手指腹侧创面修复的特殊需要。     

Anatomic basis of a pedicled extensor digitorum brevis muscle flap

The vascularization of the extensor digitorum brevis is ensured on its deep aspect by branches of the anterior tibial artery, but also by a lateral arterial arch anastomosing with these branches. The lateral vascular arch of the extensor digitorum brevis was constantly found in 37 anatomic specimens: 17 formolized and 20 fresh. This arch derives from the perforating peroneal branch, the terminal anterior branch of the peroneal artery. Its variable caliber, assessed by arteriography of the foot, seemed adequate for the peroneal artery to serve as a pedicle for the extensor digitorum brevis without interruption of the anterior-tibial axis.     

踇趾腓侧趾背动脉蒂甲床瓣移植的显微外科解剖

目的　为临床设计切取母趾腓侧趾背动脉蒂甲床瓣提供解剖学基础。 方法　选用15只（左侧6例,右侧9例,男性11例,女性4例）新鲜足标本进行红色乳胶灌注,解剖观测母趾腓侧趾背动脉的起始、走行及分布规律和特点。 结果　母趾腓侧趾背动脉均存在,根据其起源分为：Ⅰ型,母趾腓侧趾背动脉由第1跖背动脉内侧发出9例,占60.00%,起始处直径（1.21±0.34）mm;Ⅱ型,母趾腓侧趾背动脉在近节趾骨由母趾腓侧趾底动脉内侧发出3例,占20.00%,起始处直径（1.13±0.26）mm;母趾腓侧趾背动脉由第1跖背动脉与母趾腓侧趾底动脉在近节趾骨共干发出3例,占20.00%;根据分支优势可分3种亚型：Ⅲa型：第1跖背动脉分支粗大型1例,占6.67%,第1跖背动脉起始处直径0.82 mm,母趾腓侧趾底动起始处直径0.53 mm;Ⅲb型： 母趾腓侧趾底分支动脉粗大型1例,占6.67%,第1跖背动脉起始处直径0.51 mm,母趾腓侧趾底动脉起始处直径0.71 mm;Ⅲc型： 第1跖背动脉分支与母趾腓侧趾底动脉分支等大型（均细型）1例,占6.67%,分支在第1跖背动脉起始处直径0.41mm,分支在母趾腓侧趾底动起始处直径0.43 mm。所有类型母趾腓侧趾背动脉均延伸入甲床,并有皮支滋养上甲皮及腓侧甲廓。 结论　以母趾腓侧趾背动脉蒂甲床瓣可游离移植修复手指甲床缺损,该术式具有血供可靠、不牺牲主干血管,切取安全,并有营养神经伴行等优点。     

踇趾腓侧趾背动脉蒂甲床瓣移植的显微外科解剖

目的　为临床设计切取母趾腓侧趾背动脉蒂甲床瓣提供解剖学基础。 方法　选用15只（左侧6例,右侧9例,男性11例,女性4例）新鲜足标本进行红色乳胶灌注,解剖观测母趾腓侧趾背动脉的起始、走行及分布规律和特点。 结果　母趾腓侧趾背动脉均存在,根据其起源分为：Ⅰ型,母趾腓侧趾背动脉由第1跖背动脉内侧发出9例,占60.00%,起始处直径（1.21±0.34）mm;Ⅱ型,母趾腓侧趾背动脉在近节趾骨由母趾腓侧趾底动脉内侧发出3例,占20.00%,起始处直径（1.13±0.26）mm;母趾腓侧趾背动脉由第1跖背动脉与母趾腓侧趾底动脉在近节趾骨共干发出3例,占20.00%;根据分支优势可分3种亚型：Ⅲa型：第1跖背动脉分支粗大型1例,占6.67%,第1跖背动脉起始处直径0.82 mm,母趾腓侧趾底动起始处直径0.53 mm;Ⅲb型： 母趾腓侧趾底分支动脉粗大型1例,占6.67%,第1跖背动脉起始处直径0.51 mm,母趾腓侧趾底动脉起始处直径0.71 mm;Ⅲc型： 第1跖背动脉分支与母趾腓侧趾底动脉分支等大型（均细型）1例,占6.67%,分支在第1跖背动脉起始处直径0.41mm,分支在母趾腓侧趾底动起始处直径0.43 mm。所有类型母趾腓侧趾背动脉均延伸入甲床,并有皮支滋养上甲皮及腓侧甲廓。 结论　以母趾腓侧趾背动脉蒂甲床瓣可游离移植修复手指甲床缺损,该术式具有血供可靠、不牺牲主干血管,切取安全,并有营养神经伴行等优点。     

The communicating branch of the lateral plantar nerve: A descriptive anatomic study

Since the communicating branch of the lateral plantar nerve has been implicated as a factor in the etiology of Morton's neuroma, a painful perineurofibrosis of a common plantar digital nerve, this project was designed to investigate the anatomy of this communicating branch. Both feet of 40 embalmed human cadavers were dissected to show the frequency of occurrence and anatomical variation of the communicating branch. The communicating branch was present in 66.2% of the feet we studied with no large gender-based differences. Branches occurred bilaterally in 52.5% of cadavers, while 27.5% had branches unilaterally. The occurrence of this branch does not correlate well with the likelihood of development of Morton's neuroma. Differences in diameter of the communicating branch ranged from less than 0.5 mm to as large as the common plantar digital nerves themselves, about 2 mm. The presence or absence of the communicating branch made no qualitative difference in the diameters of the common plantar digital nerves. There were 60.4% of the communicating branches in this study that had a typically-described orientation, arising more proximally in the foot from the fourth common plantar digital nerve, while 39.6% of the branches had a reversed orientation, arising more proximally from the third common plantar digital nerve. These reversed branches had a more oblique orientation when compared to the classic branches. Other anatomical variations were noted, including accessory branches that attached to deeper structures in the foot. These data form a basis for further research into the etiology of Morton's neuroma and improved surgical techniques for correcting this condition. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

介入治疗股骨头缺血性坏死的应用解剖

目的 介入治疗股骨头缺血性坏死提供解剖学基础.方法 选用经乳胶灌注防腐成人下肢标本20侧及新鲜成人下肢标本2侧,观察股深动脉的起点方位及分支类型,测量股深动脉及各分支长度和外径以及各分支起始部的角度.结果 股深动脉主要从股动脉后方(36.4％)和后外侧方(36.4％)发出,旋股内侧动脉从股深动脉发出(72.7％),从股动脉发出(27.3％).各主要血管的长度为:股深动脉(19.22±10.19) mm,其根部距腹股沟韧带的距离为(38±11.78)mm;旋股内侧动脉(12.56±6.17) mm;旋股外侧动脉(13.93±11.04) mm.各主要血管的外径为:股深动脉(5.20±1.57)mm,旋股内侧动脉(3.64±0.99) mm,其升支(2.66±0.99)mm;旋股外侧动脉(4.48±1.19) mm,其升支(2.12±0.59) mm.旋股内侧动脉升支以与主干成接近90°的夹角;旋股外侧动脉与其升支间约呈115.82°夹角.结论 熟悉股动脉应用解剖,有利于完善这种治疗方法.     

Pedal arteries of monkeys, with special reference to the plantar metatarsal arteries

In the Japanese, Formosan and crab-eating monkeys, the dorsal metatarsal arteries and their lateral distal perforating branches were well developed and supplied, directly or via the catella plantaris distalis, the plantar digital arteries. In the black ape, the plantar digital arteries arose from the medial plantar artery. The plantar metatarsal arteries of these monkeys, including the black ape, arose from the catella plantaris proximalis or deep plantar arch and were classified into the superficial plantar metatarsal (sM), superficial plantar intermetatarsal (sI), deep plantar metatarsal (dM) and deep plantar intermetatarsal (dI) arteries in relation to the interosseous muscles and metatarsal bones. This classification largely coincides with that of the human hand and foot (Murakami, 1969, 1971) and the monkey hand (Nakai et al., 1987).     

游离母趾甲皮瓣嵌合第2趾骨复合组织瓣再造拇指的显微外科解剖

目的　为游离母趾甲皮瓣嵌合第2趾骨复合组织瓣再造拇指术提供解剖学基础。 方法　10只新鲜成人尸体足标本,经动脉灌注红色乳胶后进行解剖。系统观测母趾和第2趾动、静脉分布规律,测量血管长度及直径;模拟游离踇趾甲皮瓣嵌合第2趾骨复合组织瓣再造拇指的术式设计。 结果　第1跖背动脉在第1趾蹼深层发出2分支：踇趾腓侧趾底固有动脉和第2趾胫侧趾底固有动脉。踇趾腓侧趾底动脉血管（分叉至进入皮瓣）长度（1.82±0.12）cm,直径（1.08±0.06）mm;第2趾胫侧趾底动脉血管（分叉至近侧趾间关节）长度（0.90±0.16）cm,直径（0.82±0.13）mm。静脉分深浅两层,第1、2趾背侧浅静脉汇流入足踝内侧的大隐静脉。模拟再造拇指相互环绕的血管蒂无卡压。 结论　母趾、第2趾动、静脉血管可保障母趾甲皮瓣、第2趾骨复合组织瓣血供,模拟再造拇指相互环绕的血管蒂无卡压;适合设计游离母趾甲皮瓣嵌合第2趾骨复合组织瓣再造拇指。     

吻合血管神经第1跖趾关节移植重建肘关节的解剖学基础

目的：为吻合血管神经第1跖趾关节移植重建肘关节提供解剖学基础。法：20侧灌注红色乳胶的成人下肢标本解剖观察第1跖趾关节的血管神经分布及关节的构造，24只足部动脉铸型标本对关节支作对照观察。结果：第1跖趾关节的血供有背胫侧、背腓侧，跖胫侧、踊腓侧和关节后5部分关节支，腓侧关节支多和粗于胫侧，关节支外径0．3～0．5mm。关节支发自第1跖背动脉、腓侧趾背动脉、第1跖底动脉、趾底动脉和横动脉近侧支。关节的神经支与动脉相似，主要发自腓深神经、腓浅神经内侧支、第1趾足底总神经和趾底固有神经。结论：吻合血管神经的第1跖趾关节移植适用于修复重建单纯性肘关节缺损或强直，供区移植骨融合对足的外形功能影响不大。     

Pseudoganglion on the connecting branch between the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve and medial plantar nerve

The connecting branch between the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve and medial plantar nerve often has an enlarged site. We investigated these enlarged sites of the connecting branches. We observed the 22 human feet of 20 Japanese cadavers. We investigated the connecting branch macroscopically and histologically. We found the connecting branches between the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve and medial plantar nerve in 19 feet out of 22 feet. This connecting nerve branch was interposed between the tendon of the flexor hallucis longus and the flexor hallucis brevis, and there enlarged in the anteroposterior direction. After penetration, numbers of fascicles of this connecting branch were increased at the enlarged site. In this region, the connective tissues surrounding the nerve fascicles and vessels were more developed compared with the adjoining sides of this branch. A few fascicles at this enlarged site innervated the first metatarsophalangeal joint capsule. Other nerve fascicles arose from the connecting branch and branched off muscular branches to the flexor hallucis brevis. This branch possibly receives the physical exertion or friction during gait due to its position. Deformity and overload of the foot can cause sensory disorders of the foot, but the anatomical basis for the relationship between the deformity/overload and sensory disorders of the foot is unclear. We discussed that this connecting branch can be a potential cause of pressure neuropathies in the human foot.     

Lateromedial and dorsoplantar borders among supplying areas of the nerves innervating the intrinsic muscles of the foot.

The branching patterns of nerves supplying the intrinsic muscles of the foot were analyzed as a basis to confirm the muscle layer structure. Thirty-eight feet of 20 Japanese cadavers were examined in detail in this study. The first dorsal interosseus was innervated by a branch from the deep peroneal nerve as well as a branch of the lateral plantar nerve in 92.1%, the second dorsal interosseus in 10. 5% and the third dorsal interosseus in 2.6%. In three specimens, branches from the deep peroneal nerve innervated the oblique head of the adductor hallucis or the lateral head the flexor hallucis brevis. In addition, branches from the medial and lateral plantar nerves and the deep peroneal nerve formed communication loops in three specimens. The first dorsal interosseus, the oblique head of the adductor hallucis and the lateral head of the flexor hallucis and their innervating nerve branches are closely related within the first intermetatarsal space. Since the tibial part of the first interosseus muscle primordium is occupied in the space during development, the variations of innervation patterns and formation of the communicating nerve loops may be explained by various combinations of the part and the other muscle primordia.