门肝分流术治疗猪肝硬化门脉高压症

目的 观察肝侧门静脉-肝总动脉侧端分流术和侧侧分流术(统称门肝分流术)对猪肝硬化门脉高压症动物模型的治疗效果.方法 对照组和实验组(即肝硬化门脉高压模型组)实验猪各15头分别行门肝分流术,观察门静脉血入肝及降压的过程.结果 对照组和实验组门肝分流术前门静脉压力分别为(20.51±0.74) cm H2O(1 cm H2O=0.098 kPa)和(30.82±2.53)cm H2O(P＜0.05);术后30 d分别为(19.75±0.84) cm H2O和(20.84±1.36) cm H2O(P＞0.05).对照组和实验组门静脉与肝总动脉的压力差术前分别为(7.20±0.34) cm H2O和(17.34±0.62) cm H2O(P＜0.05);术后30 d分别为(6.40±0.21) cm H2O和(7.84±1.32) cm H2O(P＞0.05).分流后术中脾静脉注射亚甲蓝肝脏染色良好.术后观察30 d无肝坏死及肝性脑病发生,脾肿大恢复正常.门肝分流术对肝功能的影响较大,对其他血生化代谢指标影响较小.结论 门肝分流术后虽然门静脉血入肝通道发生变更,但门脉血流动力学并未受到显著影响,反而建立了新的平衡机制来维持门脉血流动力学的稳定,达到门脉降压效果.门肝分流术后肝功能恢复所需时间较长,且需进一步治疗.     

猪门脉高压脾肝分流术后的血流动力学变化

目的 观察小型猪肝硬化门脉高压症动物模型建立远端脾静脉-肝总动脉分流术(脾肝分流术)后门脉血流动力学变化及影响.方法 15头动物模型建立脾肝分流术,肝外门脉分割成胃脾静脉区和肠系膜上下静脉区,各自独立不相通.实验猪术后饲养30 d.结果 (1)脾肝分流术后门脉主干压为(23.49±1.10) cmH2O(1 cmH2O=0.098 kPa),术后30 d为(21.53±1.26) cm H2O(P＞0.05);脾静脉压为(35.45 ±2.88) cmH2O,术后30 d为(23.09 ±1.36) cmH2O(P＜0.05);压力差为(17.90±3.31) cm H2O,术后30 d为(9.55 ±1.32) cm H2O(P ＜0.05).(2)胃脾区静脉血经脾肝分流通道人肝,脾静脉注射亚甲蓝肝染色良好.结论 脾肝分流术后肝外门脉血流通道发生了变更,但门脉血流动力学整体没有受到影响,反而建立了一种新的平衡机制来维持血流动力学的稳定,压力差是维护这种新平衡机制的原动力.     

利用右肾动脉行入肝门静脉动脉化加门腔分流术的实验研究

目的 建立利用右肾动脉行人肝门静脉动脉化加门腔分流术的大鼠模型,并研究此模型大鼠的门静脉压力、肝功能及肝组织病理学的变化.方法 实验组大鼠行右肾动脉与近端入肝门静脉主干端端吻合,右肾静脉与远端门静脉主干端端吻合,对照组大鼠仅行门静脉阻断10 nlill后关腹.观察大鼠术后2 d,2周和2个月时门静脉压力、肝功能及肝脏组织病理改变情况.结果 成功建立利用右肾动脉行门静脉完全动脉化加门腔分流术的大鼠模型30只,手术成功率为91%.术后2d大鼠入肝门静脉主干压力为(13.9±1.7)cm H_2O、术后2周为(12.8±2.7)cmH_2O、术后2个月为(12.6±1.6)cmH_2O,与对照组的(10.2±2.3)cm H_2O相比显著升高(P<0.05);术后大鼠各时间段血清丙氨酸转氨酶、总胆红素、总胆汁酸和肌酐水平与对照组相比差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05);术后2d和2周时大鼠肝脏组织病理结构无明显改变,术后2个月时出现肝窦间隙扩张,无其他病理性改变.结论 应用显微外科技术,利用右肾动脉行人肝门静脉完全动脉化加门腔分流术的大鼠模型是稳定可行的,成功率较高.术后大鼠入肝门静脉压力明显增高,并且在一定时间内保持在相对较高的水平,但未发现对肝脏功能及组织结构有明显的损害作用.     

选择性远端脾腔静脉分流术治疗门静脉高压症患者断流术后再出血

目的 探讨选择性远端脾腔静脉分流术治疗门静脉高压症患者断流术后再出血的近期和远期疗效.方法 回顾性分析2009年1月至2011年12月18例贲门周围血管离断术后复发食管胃底曲张静脉破裂出血的门静脉高压症患者,术前经Doppler及CT证实脾静脉无血栓,用远端脾静脉-腔静脉直接吻合分流.结果 在分流术后,本组18例患者的自由门静脉压从术前的(35.6±3.8) cm H2O下降至(26.9±2.7)cm H2O,两者相比差异有统计学意义,=13.6,P＜0.01.近期手术死亡率为0.术后第2天肝功能较术前发生显著性变化,但术后第7天恢复到术前水平.本组再出血率为17％,腹水发生率为44％,有2例发生肝性脑病,2年生存率为94％.结论 远端脾腔静脉分流术是一种较为理想的治疗断流术后再出血的选择性分流术式,但前提是远离脾脏的脾静脉无血栓形成.     

选择性脾胃区减断分流术后血流动力学变化的实验研究

目的 研究门静脉高压症犬行选择性脾胃区减断分流术(selective decongestive devascular-ization shunt of gastrosplenic region,SDDS-GSR)后血流动力学变化.方法 用正常犬制备门静脉高压脾亢模型并进行SDDS-GSR术.制模前、成模后,分流术后30 d和术后60 d观察门静脉压力,门静脉、肝动脉、脾静脉和脾动脉的内径、血流速度和血流量参数的变化,作自身对照研究.结果 SDDS-GSR术后30 d的脾胃区静脉压力显著下降(P<0.01),门静脉、脾动脉和脾静脉内径显著缩小(P<0.01),门静脉、脾动脉和脾静脉血流量参数减少(P<0.01),肝动脉内径和血流量参数显著增加(P<0.01),术后60 d上述指标改变仍保持稳定.结论 sDDS-GSR术通过减少脾动脉血流和改善脾静脉回流,有效地降低了脾胃区的静脉压力,并保持肠系膜区的相对高压,同时增加肝动脉向肝血流量,保证了门脉的向肝血流量,术后血流动力学变化较持久稳定,是一种合理而可取的治疗门静脉高压症的术式.     

三联手术治疗小儿肝外门静脉高压

目的评价脾肺固定术 断流术 脾动脉结扎术治疗小儿门脉高压的疗效. 方法 1993年3月～1998年11月对7例确诊为门脉高压的患儿行三联手术治疗.测定手术前后白细胞、血小板计数和肝功能,脾动脉结扎前后游离门静脉压.术后随访2～8年,平均5.6年.记录上消化道出血的发生情况,并采用钡餐评定食管胃底静脉曲张的程度.B超测定脾脏和门静脉直径,以彩色多普勒血流显像测定门肺分流及门静脉血流,粘度计行血液流变学检测.结果本组无手术死亡.术后食管及胃底曲张静脉的出血被完全控制.白细胞及血小板计数恢复至正常水平,脾脏直径进行性缩小.静脉曲张趋于缓解,游离门静脉压由术前(42.62±6.72) cm H2O降至术后(34.48±5.71) cm H2O,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).门静脉血流量亦降低,其血流方向至肝;脾静脉血流方向至脾.术前全血粘滞度降低,术后恢复至正常水平. 结论三联手术可有效地控制肝外门脉高压由于静脉曲张导致的出血.     

猪两种新型分流术后门脉血流动力学及生化指标的变化

我们应用广西巴马小型猪构建远端脾静脉-肝总动脉端端吻合术(下称脾肝分流术)和肝外门静脉主干-肝总动脉侧侧吻合术(下称门肝分流术),观察术后门静脉血流动力学的变化以及对肝功能等生化代谢指标的影响. 一、材料与方法 1.材料:实验猪购置广西巴马县国家级小型猪养殖基地中心,猪龄3～4个月,体质量10～ 15 kg,共20头.10头构建脾肝分流术,10头构建门肝分流术. 2.构建脾肝和门肝分流术:(1)实验猪气管插管全身麻醉,腹正中切口进入腹腔,测量肝脾体积大小,切取肝脾活体组织病理检查,采集下腔静脉血和腹主动脉血分别检测肝功能、凝血功能、血气和血氨.     

脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉吻合术治疗门静脉海绵样变

目的 探讨脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉吻合术治疗门静脉海绵样变的疗效.方法 分析2004年6月至2010年5月新疆维吾尔自治区人民医院收治的5例门静脉海绵样变患者的临床资料.采用脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉分流+贲门周围血管离断术治疗该病.结果 5例患者中,3例行脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉端侧吻合,2例行脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉端端吻合,分流术后门静脉压力下降至18～24 cm H2O(1 cm H2O=0.098 kPa).全组患者无手术死亡,术后无消化道出血、肝功能异常.前4例患者术后每间隔6～12个月复查B超,吻合口血流通畅,无血栓形成.结论 门静脉海绵样变患者左肾上腺静脉通常增粗,脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉分流术是合理、简单的手术方式.     

选择性和非选择性断流术治疗门静脉高压症的疗效观察

目的：探讨选择性和非选择性断流术对门静脉高压症的治疗作用。方法：将176例肝硬化门静脉高压上消化道出血病人随机分为选择性断流术组（观察组,91例）和非选择性贲门周围血管离断术组（对照组,85例）。结果：脾脏切除前、后两组间自由门静脉压力（FPP）无差异（P〉0．05）;术毕时对照组FPP为（29．8±5．1）cm H2O,观察组为（26．4±5．2）cm H2O（P〈0．05）。术后6个月观察组的肝功能Child-Pugh评分、腹水、肝动脉血流量、胃底食管下段曲张静脉程度、门静脉高压性胃病及肝源性溃疡的发生率均优于对照组（P〈0．05）。结论：选择性断流术合理地保留了机体的自发性分流．使入肝血量与降低门静脉压力这对矛盾达到动态平衡,是一种较理想的断流术式。     

脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉吻合术治疗门静脉海绵样变

目的 探讨脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉吻合术治疗门静脉海绵样变的疗效.方法 分析2004年6月至2010年5月新疆维吾尔自治区人民医院收治的5例门静脉海绵样变患者的临床资料.采用脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉分流+贲门周围血管离断术治疗该病.结果 5例患者中,3例行脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉端侧吻合,2例行脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉端端吻合,分流术后门静脉压力下降至18～24 cm H2O(1 cm H2O=0.098 kPa).全组患者无手术死亡,术后无消化道出血、肝功能异常.前4例患者术后每间隔6～12个月复查B超,吻合口血流通畅,无血栓形成.结论 门静脉海绵样变患者左肾上腺静脉通常增粗,脾静脉-左肾上腺静脉分流术是合理、简单的手术方式.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.