Charles McBurney: McBurney's point

Charles McBurney published a treatise on appendicitis in 1891, in which he described the exact point on the abdomen at which tenderness was maximal in cases of acute appendicitis--the point now known as "McBurney's point." He also described his approach to both the diagnosis and management of appendicitis, which at the time consisted of careful observation, total disuse of the stomach, and early laparotomy. Since 1891, many advances in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis have been made. Emergency physicians evaluating patients with abdominal pain may rely on laboratory studies, particularly the white blood cell count, and abdominal imaging with either ultrasound or computed tomography in addition to the history and physical examination. Despite these advances, tenderness to palpation over McBurney's point remains a key finding on abdominal examination in the assessment of patients with abdominal pain.     

Pinch-an-inch test for appendicitis

Rebound tenderness is a widely used examination technique for patients with suspected appendicitis, but it can be quite uncomfortable. An alternative test for peritonitis is termed the "pinch-an-inch" test. This report describes two patients who presented with mild abdominal pain who subsequently were found to have appendicitis. In both patients, classic peritoneal signs were absent, but the pinch-an-inch test was positive. The experienced physician's bedside clinical examination remains the most critical component for rapidly identifying peritonitis. Although rebound tenderness is a widely used examination, it is uncomfortable and may be inaccurate. To perform the pinch-an-inch test, a fold of abdominal skin over McBurney's point is grasped and elevated away from the peritoneum. The skin is allowed to recoil back briskly against the peritoneum. If the patient has increased pain when the skin fold strikes the peritoneum, the test is positive and peritonitis probably is present.     

小儿急性阑尾炎的检体诊断特征分析

目的探讨不同年龄段的小儿急性阑尾炎腹部检体诊断特点。 方法将手术证实的431例小儿急性阑尾炎患儿分为新生儿组、婴幼儿组、学龄前组、学龄期组,对各组检体情况进行回顾性分析,总结其各自特点。 结果新生儿组3例(0.70%)以腹胀、精神差、肠鸣音改变等为主,婴幼儿组31例(7.19%)以叩痛、减速带试验阳性、反跳痛等为主,学龄前组162例(37.59%)以叩痛、反跳痛、肠鸣音改变等为主,学龄期组235例(54.52%)以叩痛、减速带试验阳性、反跳痛等为主。 结论各年龄段小儿急性阑尾炎的腹部检体诊断特点不相同,细致、准确的检体可提供重要诊断依据。     

Misdiagnosis of appendicitis in nonpregnant women of childbearing age

A retrospective case series was conducted at a teaching hospital with an emergency department (ED) census of 100,000 patients per year to identify the incidence of, and factors associated with, the misdiagnosis of appendicitis in nonpregnant women aged 15 to 45 years. There were 174 nonpregnant women identified with a pathologic diagnosis of appendicitis. Clinical features were then compared between patients misdiagnosed (seen in prior 10 days and given an incorrect diagnosis) and those who were initially diagnosed correctly. The results showed that 33% of the women with appendicitis were initially misdiagnosed. The most common misdiagnoses included pelvic inflammatory disease, gastroenteritis, and urinary infections. Misdiagnosed women more frequently exhibited diffuse and bilateral lower abdominal pain and tenderness, cervical motion, and right adnexal tenderness. Misdiagnosed women also had a lower incidence of right lower quadrant pain and tenderness, and peritoneal signs. In addition, misdiagnosis was associated with an increased incidence of perforation, abscess formation, and an increase in the total length of hospitalization. In conclusion, the incidence of misdiagnosis of appendicitis in women of childbearing age is high. Women who are misdiagnosed have less typical symptoms and physical findings and more frequent abnormal pelvic findings than those who are diagnosed correctly. Emergency physicians should be aware that atypical signs and symptoms are associated with misdiagnosed appendicitis in nonpregnant women of childbearing age.     

Appendicitis masquerading as tumor: a case of two diagnoses

Acute appendicitis remains one of the most difficult diagnoses to make in the Emergency Department. We present a puzzling and unusual case. A 47-year-old man had several hours of acute abdominal pain in the right upper quadrant, point tenderness in the right midquadrant on examination, and normal chemistries. Early appendicitis was suspected and a computed tomography (CT) scan of the abdomen was obtained. Appendicitis was not seen. What was evident was a retroperitoneal lipoma estimated to weigh 10 pounds. The general surgeon was consulted who believed that operation was necessary in light of the patient’s continuing abdominal pain and the presence of the mass. Masses this large could cause pain from local compression of structures, or ischemia of the mass from outgrowing its blood supply. In surgery, a lipoma was observed that filled most of the retroperitoneum and displaced all the contents of the abdomen, including the cecum and its appendix. Also present was an acute appendicitis. On retrospective analysis of the CT scan, the appendicitis was evident but atypically located in the epigastrium. This case illustrates once again that the CT scan is a useful diagnostic adjunct for the diagnosis of new onset abdominal pain and specifically for appendicitis.     

Clinical prediction rule to distinguish pelvic inflammatory disease from acute appendicitis in women of childbearing age

Objective

We aimed to develop a clinical prediction rule to distinguish pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) from acute appendicitis in women of childbearing age.

Methods

We reviewed medical records over a 4-year period of female patients of childbearing age who had presented with abdominal pain at an urban emergency department and had either appendicitis (n = 109) or PID (n = 72). A prediction rule was developed by use of recursive partitioning based on significant factors for the discrimination.

Results

The significant factors to favor PID over appendicitis were (1) no migration of pain (odds ratio [OR], 4.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.5-11.5), (2) bilateral abdominal tenderness (OR, 16.7; 95% CI, 5.3-50.0), and (3) absence of nausea and vomiting (OR, 8.4; 95% CI, 2.8-24.8). The prediction rule could rule out appendicitis from PID with sensitivity of 99% (95% CI, 94-100%) when classified as a low-risk group by the following factors: (1) no migration of pain, (2) bilateral abdominal tenderness, and (3) no nausea and vomiting.

Conclusion

We developed a prediction rule for childbearing-aged women presenting with acute abdominal pain to distinguish acute appendicitis from PID based on 3 simple, clinical features: migration of pain, bilateral abdominal tenderness, and nausea and vomiting. Prospective validation is needed in other settings.     

Single and Combined Diagnostic Value of Clinical Features and Laboratory Tests in Acute Appendicitis

Objectives:  The objective was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of clinical features and laboratory test results in detecting acute appendicitis.
Methods:  Clinical features and laboratory test results were prospectively recorded in a consecutive series of 1,101 patients presenting with abdominal pain at the emergency department (ED) in six hospitals. Likelihood ratios (LRs) and the areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) were calculated for the individual features. Variants of clinical presentation, based on different combinations of clinical features, were investigated and the accuracies of combinations of clinical features were evaluated.
Results:  The discriminative power (AUC) of the individual features in patients with suspected appendicitis ranged from 0.50 to 0.65. For five of the 23 predictor sets, the accuracy for appendicitis was more than 85%. This accuracy was only found in male patients. The relative frequency of these predictor sets ranged from 2% to 13% of patients with suspected appendicitis. A combination of the clinical features migration of pain to the right lower quadrant (RLQ), and direct tenderness in the RLQ, was present in only 28% (120/422) of clinically suspected patients, of whom no more than 85 patients had appendicitis (71%). A "classical" presentation (combination of migration of pain to the RLQ, tenderness in the RLQ, and rigidity) occurred in only 6% (25/422) of patients with suspected appendicitis and yielded an accuracy of 100% in males but only 46% in females.
Conclusions:  The discriminative power (AUC) of individual clinical features and laboratory test results for appendicitis was weak in patients with suspected appendicitis. Combinations of clinical features and laboratory tests with high diagnostic accuracy are relatively infrequent in patients with suspected appendicitis.     

Prospective randomized study of analgesic use for ED patients with right lower quadrant abdominal pain

Giving an analgesic to patients with right lower quadrant (RLQ) pain causes greater alteration of abdominal signs predictive of appendicitis than placebo. A randomized double-blinded controlled trial of 68 patients who received either tramadol or placebo. Absence or presence of seven abdominal signs (tenderness on light and deep palpation, tenderness in the RLQ and elsewhere, rebound, cough, and percussion tenderness) and pain (100 mm Visual Analog Scale [VAS]) at 0 and 30 minutes were recorded. The predictive value of each physical finding (PF) was measured using an 11-point PF score weighted by likelihood ratios. There was significant reduction in mean VAS of 14.2 mm (95% CI 5.6 to 22.8) in analgesic group versus 6.5 mm (95% CI 1.6 to 11.4) in placebo group. The analgesic group had less normalization of signs as measured by the PF score in all patients [32 of 154 (20.8%) versus 40 of 121 (33.1 %) (P = .031)] and in those with proven appendicitis [4 of 33 (12.1%) versus 10/22 (45.5%) (P = .014)]. Parenteral use of tramadol in emergency department patients with RLQ pain resulted in significant levels of pain reduction without concurrent normalisation of abdominal examination findings indicative of acute appendicitis.     

Abdominal pain in quadriparesis: myofascial syndrome as unsuspected cause

This is a case report of a 47-year-old man with C6 quadriparesis who presented with tenderness in the right lower quandrant of his abdomen which was diagnosed as iliocostalis myofascial syndrome. Diagnosis of nephrolithiasis and appendicitis were considered, but the complete blood count, abdominal x-ray, intravenous pyelogram, and sonogram were all normal. His symptoms became progressively more severe over the ensuing 2-week period. Examination at that time revealed extreme tenderness to light touch in the right lower quandrant, right flank, and right posterior subcostal area. A trigger point in the right iliocostalis muscle referred pain to the right lower quandrant. In the absence of evidence of internal derangement a diagnosis of iliocostalis myofascial syndrome was made. A 3-day course of "spray and stretch" to the iliocostalis cleared the symptoms. This case illustrates that myofascial syndrome should be considered in the differential diagnosis of soft tissue pain in the patient with spinal cord injury and sensory sparing.     

淋病性腹膜炎临床诊断回顾(附30例报告)

作者对30例淋病性腹膜炎临床诊断进行回顾分析。13例因误诊而行探腹术，其中11例误诊为急性阑尾炎、阑尾穿孔（84．6％），1例误为胆囊炎、胆石症（7．7％），1例误为卵巢黄体破裂（7．7％）。大多数病例有不洁性生活史。通常有以下特点：（1）就诊较晚；（2）无典型脐周转移右下腹疼痛史；（3）强直体位不明显；（4）腹部肌卫较轻，（5）右下腹压痛点固定不明显。本组30例从腹腔渗液或从阴道粘液均查见淋病双球菌（PCR技术）。结论是：从本组诊断经过中认为淋病性腹膜炎最易误诊为急性阑尾炎、阑尾穿孔。应根据病史，症状和实验室检查加以鉴别以避免不必要的剖腹探查术。     

穿孔性阑尾炎的临床表现及CT表现

目的 比较穿孔性和非穿孔性阑尾炎的CT及临床表现,探讨CT对穿孔性阑尾炎的诊断价值.方法 术后回顾性分析109例阑尾炎患者,将其分为穿孔性阑尾炎和非穿孔性阑尾炎2组,分析及比较二组临床症状、体征、实验室检查及CT征象.结果 症状持续超过3d、右下腹痛性包块,CT上阑尾管壁缺损、阑尾周围积气、阑尾腔外结石、腹腔脓肿、蜂窝组织炎等对于穿孔性阑尾炎的诊断具有较大的特异性,而反跳痛、腹肌紧张及CT上阑尾直径、阑尾周围肠壁增厚在穿孔性阑尾炎组中出现的概率也高于非穿孔性阑尾炎组(P＜0.05).结论 结合CT征象及临床表现可提高穿孔性阑尾炎的诊断,对于手术方案的选择具有较大的意义.     

超声显示右下腹腹膜线改变对诊断小儿早期阑尾炎价值的研究

目的探讨超声显示右下腹腹膜线改变对诊断小儿早期阑尾炎的意义。方法对临床疑为小儿早期急性阑尾炎，病史〈12h，腹痛、呕吐，腹部有压痛的72例患儿行腹部B超检查。结果72例中60例经手术、病理证实为急性单纯性或早期化脓性阑尾炎，其中56例术前B超可见右下腹腹膜线改变，阳性率为93％。结论超声显示右下腹腹膜线改变是诊断小儿早期阑尾炎的重要依据。     

Atypical Clinical Features of Pediatric Appendicitis

Background The diagnosis of appendicitis remains challenging in children. Delays in diagnosis, or misdiagnosis, have important medical and legal implications. The typical, or classic, presentation of pediatric appendicitis has been modeled after adult disease; however, many children present atypically with subtle findings or unusual signs. Objectives To determine the frequency of atypical clinical features among pediatric patients with appendicitis and to investigate which atypical features are the strongest negative predictors for appendicitis among patients being evaluated for appendicitis. Methods Children and adolescents with suspected appendicitis were enrolled over 20 consecutive months. Pediatric emergency physicians completed standardized data collection forms on eligible patients. Final diagnosis was determined by pathology or follow-up telephone call. Typical and atypical findings were defined strictly a priori. Results Seven hundred fifty-five patients were enrolled. The median age was 11.9 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 8.5, 14.9 yr); 36% of patients were diagnosed with appendicitis. Among patients with appendicitis, the most common atypical features included absence of pyrexia (83%), absence of Rovsing's sign (68%), normal or increased bowel sounds (64%), absence of rebound pain (52%), lack of migration of pain (50%), lack of guarding (47%), abrupt onset of pain (45%), lack of anorexia (40%), absence of maximal pain in the right lower quadrant (32%), and absence of percussive tenderness (31%). Forty-four percent of patients with proven appendicitis had six or more atypical characteristics. The median number of atypical features for patients with proven appendicitis was five (IQR: 4.0, 7.0). The greatest negative predictors, on the basis of likelihood ratios, were as follows: white blood cell count (WBC) of <10,000 per cubic millimeter (likelihood ratios [LR], 0.18), absolute neutrophil count (ANC) of <7,500 per cubic millimeter (LR, 0.35), lack of percussive tenderness (LR, 0.50), lack of guarding (LR, 0.63), and no nausea or emesis (LR, 0.65). Conclusions Appendicitis in pediatric patients is difficult to diagnose because children present with a wide variety of atypical clinical features. Forty-four percent of patients with appendicitis presented with six or more atypical features. Two atypical features are the strongest negative predictors of appendicitis in children: WBC of <10,000 per cubic millimeter and an ANC of <7,500 per cubic millimeter.     

Acute appendicitis: review and update

Appendicitis is common, with a lifetime occurrence of 7 percent. Abdominal pain and anorexia are the predominant symptoms. The most important physical examination finding is right lower quadrant tenderness to palpation. A complete blood count and urinalysis are sometimes helpful in determining the diagnosis and supporting the presence or absence of appendicitis, while appendiceal computed tomographic scans and ultrasonography can be helpful in equivocal cases. Delay in diagnosing appendicitis increases the risk of perforation and complications. Complication and mortality rates are much higher in children and the elderly.     

Predicting need for additional CT scan in children with a non-diagnostic ultrasound for appendicitis in the emergency department

Objective

This study aimed to determine which children with suspected appendicitis should be considered for a computerized tomography (CT) scan after a non-diagnostic ultrasound (US) in the Emergency Department (ED).

The diagnosis of acute appendicitis: clinical assessment versus computed tomography evaluation

The goal of this study was to validate Alvarado's predictive model as a diagnostic test and to assess the effectiveness of computed tomography (CT) scan as a supplemental tool in the evaluation of acute appendicitis. Clinical and radiologic data of 215 patients with acute abdominal pain were evaluated. Clinical assessment was based on positive findings of migration of pain, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, tenderness of the lower right quadrant, rebound tenderness, fever, and leukocytosis with a left shift. Evaluation by CT scan had a sensitivity of 90.1% and a specificity of 94.1%. Clinical assessment based on the MANTRELS criteria had a sensitivity of 91.6% and a specificity of 84.7%. With the assistance of CT scan, sensitivity and specificity increased to 98.3% and 95.8%, respectively.     

Left-sided Acute Appendicitis: A Pitfall in the Emergency Department

Background

Acute appendicitis continues to be a condition at high risk for missed and delayed diagnosis. It characteristically presents with right lower quadrant pain after vague epigastric or periumbilical discomfort. Left-sided appendicitis is an atypical presentation and has been reported rarely. The majority of these cases have been described to be associated with congenital midgut malrotation, situs inversus, or an extremely long appendix. We report a case of left-sided acute appendicitis occurring in a patient with a redundant and hypermobile ascending colon.

Objectives

To alert emergency physicians to an anatomical anomaly that could delay the diagnosis of appendicitis.

Case Report

A 50-year-old man presented with fever and left lower abdominal pain. Physical examination revealed local tenderness over the left lower quadrant. Abdominal computed tomography scan revealed a redundant, floating, ascending colon and inflammatory appendix adhering to the descending colon over the left lower abdomen. Exploratory laparotomy was performed and perforated appendicitis with turbid ascites was found during the surgery. Appendectomy was performed and the patient recovered uneventfully.

Conclusion

This case is presented to increase awareness among emergency physicians of this anatomical variant and atypical presentation of appendicitis.     

分诊与急性阑尾炎预后的关系

  目的  探讨急性阑尾炎患者的分诊是否对其预后产生影响。  方法  回顾性分析98例出院诊断为急性阑尾炎患者的分诊情况及其术前检查情况、病理结果及预后等。  结果  首诊于外科的急性阑尾炎患者为69例(70.41%), 不同科室就诊患者起病时间不同, 差异有统计学意义(P=0.0001)。全部患者均诉有腹痛, 40例(40.82%)有典型的转移性右下腹痛; 全部患者查体均有右下腹压痛, 40例(40.82%)有反跳痛; 82例(83.67%)患者白细胞升高。术前准备时间以外科最长, 其次为内科及妇产科, 但三个科室的术前准备时间差异无统计学意义(P=0.723)。首诊于三个科室的患者白细胞计数差异无统计学意义(P=0.653)。并发腹膜炎患者(28例)和无腹膜炎患者(70例)的白细胞计数差异无统计学意义(P=0.648)。首诊科室的不同, 并不会导致患者腹膜炎发生率的不同(P=0.542)。  结论  首诊科室的不同不会影响阑尾炎患者的预后, 而预后与术前时间、首诊科室及白细胞数目的关系仍有待更大样本的研究。     

Acute right‐sided colonic diverticulitis mimicking appendicitis: A report of two cases

We describe two right‐sided diverticulitis cases that presented with marked right iliac fossa tenderness with guarding and rebound and laboratory parameters resembling acute appendicitis. The imaging findings suggested diverticulitis in both cases. One of the patients underwent surgery and the other one was followed up with medical treatment. Awareness of these imaging findings may aid in the diagnosis of right‐sided diverticulitis, which is frequently misdiagnosed and mistreated. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound, 2013     

Increased non-articular tenderness in patients on steroid therapy.

Increased non-articular tenderness and tender shins have been suggested to be associated with steroid therapy in patients with lupus. The aim of the present study was to extend this observation in a different disease, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and to examine the relationship between tenderness, dosage and duration of steroid therapy. Eighty-seven patients with 11313, 23 of them on steroid therapy, were assessed for disease activity and nonarticular tenderness. A count of 18 tender points was conducted by thumb palpation, and tenderness thresholds were assessed by dolorimetry at four shin sites, nine tender point sites and four control point sites. Patients on steroids were significantly more tender than subjects not on steroids: their mean tender point counts were 13.3 and 6.7 (p < 0.001), respectively, and the dolorimetry thresholds at all three sites were significantly lower in the steroid group (p < 0.001). Increased tenderness was also associated with increased steroid dosage. However, tenderness was not related to duration of steroid therapy, to gender, or to previous steroid therapy being discontinued at least a year ago. Disease activity was neither related to tenderness nor to steroid treatment. The demonstration of increased tenderness in IBD patients on steroid therapy, in addition to earlier observations in lupus, may suggest that such a relationship is not disease specific. The recognition of this association is important to physicians treating patients with steroids and will prevent misinterpretations of complaints about tender shins and diffuse tenderness as part of the disease entity itself.