Subepithelial B cells in the human palatine tonsil. II. Functional characterization

This study investigates the main functional features of subepithelial (SE) B cells and compares them with those of purified germinal center (GC) and follicular mantle (FM) B cells isolated from the same tonsils. Unlike GC B cells, SE B cells failed to produce polyspecific antibodies in vitro; unlike GC B cells, SE B cells expressed high levels of Bcl-2 and failed to undergo spontaneous apoptosis in vitro. The most striking function of SE B cells was their ability to produce IgM antibodies to T cell-independent type-2 (TI-2) (but not to TI-1) antigens (Ag). These antibodies could not be detected when both FM and GC B cells were stimulated with TI-2 Ag in vitro. Moreover, B cells isolated from peripheral blood were unable to mount a response to TI-2 Ag. The latter finding is consistent with the observation that B cells with the phenotypic features of SE B cells were virtually absent in the peripheral blood and emphasizes the notion that SE B cells belong to a subset of non-recirculating B cells. SE B cells were by far superior to FM B cells in mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) stimulation of allogeneic T cells in vitro, although they were not as efficient as dendritic cells (DC). In order to stimulate T cells efficiently, SE B cells had to be exposed to anti-μ antibody, a treatment which induced expression of activation markers such as CD80, CD86, CD69 and CD39, usually absent in resting SE B cells. CD80 and CD86 molecules expressed by SE B cells participated in the chain of events required to promote the proliferation of allogeneic T cells as demonstrated by inhibition tests with the appropriate mAb. The expression of CD80 and CD86 by anti-μ-treated SE B cells was not, however, the sole explanation for their good antigen presenting capacities since the exposure of FM B cells to anti-μ antibody also induced expression of these surface structures. Nevertheless, these cells failed to become good MLR stimulators. Collectively, the above data contribute further to the characterization of a distinct subset of tonsillar B cells which resemble, both phenotypically and functionally, the B cells of the splenic marginal zone.     

Route of lymphocyte migration through the high endothelial venule (HEV) in human palatine tonsil

Eleven palatine tonsils were collected from subjects who underwent tonsillectomy in Christian Medical College Hospital and the route of migration of lymphocytes through the high endothelial vessel was studied under EM. In the interendothelial route, migration of a lymphocyte through HEV wall began with the adhesion of a lymphocyte to the surface of endothelial cells by means of a short cytoplasmic projection in the vicinity of intercellular space. The projection extended into the cleft between adjacent endothelial cells. The lymphocyte migrated through HEV by diapedesis. After the lymphocyte had traversed the interendothelial space, it occupied the subendothelial space. In the transendothelial route, migration of a lymphocyte through HEV was initiated by adherence of the lymphocyte to the endothelial cell. The adherent lymphocyte compressed or invaginated into the cytoplasm of the endothelial cell, entered the endothelial cell, was completely enclosed within the endothelial cell cytoplasm, and emerged from the endothelial cell to occupy the subendothelial space. Evidence is presented from static transmission electron microscopic pictures for the migration of lymphocytes by both interendothelial and transendothelial routes through the high endothelial venule.     

扁桃体细胞的表型及其自然杀伤功能

目的比较腭扁桃体细胞 (PTC)与外周血单个核细胞 (PBMC)的表型 ,观察IL 2刺激前后PTC的杀伤活性,探讨扁桃体的免疫功能。方法用流式细胞仪分别检测扁桃体与PBMC表面CD3,CD4 ,CD8 ,CD20,PTA1及9.1C3的表达情况。用4h51Cr释放实验检测静止时及IL 2刺激后PTC中NK细胞杀伤K562活性的改变。结果PTC中CD20的表达率为71.2 % ,PBMC为15.5 % ,且PTC中的平均荧光强度 (MFI)明显高于PBMC。静止的扁桃体细胞杀伤功能非常低 ,经IL 2刺激后杀伤功能显著提高 ,效靶比为200∶1时达到61.5 %。CD3阳性率在PTC和PBMC中分别为32.8%和57.7% ;CD4/CD8的比值分别为6.97和1.11。两种新分子血小板T细胞活化抗原1(PTA1)和9.1C3在扁桃体中均有表达。结论扁桃体单个核细胞中B细胞占多数 ,而且CD20的表达密度明显高于外周血B细胞 ;在T细胞中以CD4 细胞为主 ;IL 2活化后PTC有较高的自然杀伤活性 ;与CTL和NK细胞相关的膜标记PTA1和9.1C3均有表达。     

Reticular crypt epithelium and intra-epithelial lymphoid cells in the hyperplastic human palatine tonsil: An immunohistochemical analysis

Extensive immunohistochemical analyses of the hyperplastic human palatine tonsil disclosed variegated B cell phenotypes on the lymphoid cells among the crypt epithelium. The reticular epithelial network was evident by cytokeratin immunostaining. The reticular epithelium near the crypt Iumen was positive for Iysozyme. Secretory component was negative, while HLA-DR was frequently expressed. Intramucosal small Iymphocytes, densely distributed in the Iuminal side, consisted mainly of B cells expressing CD19, CD20, CD21, CD22, CD45R, CD74, DBB42, HLA-DR, HLA-DQ, bcl-2 protein and surface lgM. Some B cells revealed mantle zone phenotypes (surface IgD+, CD5+, CD24+, DBA44+, CD10^--, DNA7^--). Cells of germinocyte phenotype (CD10+, DNA7+) were sparsely seen. A good number of intramucosal lymphoid cells were further labeled for CD11b, a phenotype of so-called B-1 cells. Plasma cells were clustered within the basal half. IgG was their major immunoglobulin class, followed by IgA, IgM and lgD classes. A smaller number of T cells (CD2+, CD3+, CD5+, CD45RO+, TCR αβ+) were identified among the epithelium. CD4+ cells predominated over CD8+ cells. TCR γΔ + cells were rare. Macrophages (CD68+), dendritic histio-cytes (S-100 protein+, CD1+), and natural killer cells (CD16+ or CD57+) were also dispersed. Another unique feature of this lymphoepithelial complex was the existence of HLA-DR intramucosal microvasculature, where lymphocyte recirculation was suggested. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen was detected commonly in the epithelial cells but rarely in the lymphoid cells. Possible lymphoepithelial interactions and morphologic similarities to the thymic medulla are discussed.     

人胎中后期腭扁桃体组织结构特征及其CD20和CD3阳性细胞的表达

目的从形态学角度探讨人胎中后期腭扁桃体组织结构特征及其CD20和CD3阳性细胞的表达情况。方法收集6～10月龄因故终止妊娠人胎腭扁桃体25例,用组织学常规H-E染色显示其组织结构,免疫组织化学SP法染色显示阳性细胞并用BioMiaspro图象分析软件计数。结果自6月龄起,人胎早期形成的腭扁桃体雏形逐渐完善,固有层增厚,弥散淋巴组织和初级淋巴小结增多,已有大量淋巴细胞表达CD20或CD3。至8月龄起,腭扁桃体隐窝上皮内始见毛细血管浸润。邻片对照显示,CD20阳性细不仅大量分布于淋巴小结,且在弥散淋巴组织和隐窝上皮内也较多;CD3阳性细胞则主要分布于弥散淋巴组织,淋巴小结和隐窝上皮内皆较少。细胞计数显示6～10月龄人胎腭扁桃体,2种阳性细胞数量随胎龄增加逐渐增多(P<0.05),但CD20阳性细胞占绝大多数(P<0.05)。结论 8月龄起,人胎腭扁桃体形态结构基本成熟;人胎腭扁桃体具有潜在的CD20和CD3合成和释放能力,对胎儿免疫功能的建立和健全发挥着重要作用。     

High-resolution MRI of the human palatine tonsil and its schematic anatomic 3D reconstruction

The palatine tonsils form an important part of the human immune system. Together with the other lymphoid tonsils of Waldeyer's tonsillar ring, they act as the first line of defense against ingested or inhaled pathogens. Although histologically stained sections of the palatine tonsil are widely available, they represent the tissue only in two dimensions and do not provide reference to three-dimensional space. Such a representation of a tonsillar specimen based on imaging data as a 3D anatomical reconstruction is lacking both in scientific publications and especially in textbooks. As a first step in this direction, the objective of the present work was to image a resected tonsil specimen with high spatial resolution in a 9.4 T small-bore pre-clinical MRI and to combine these data with data from the completely sectioned and H&E stained same palatine tonsil. Based on the information from both image modalities, a 3D anatomical sketch was drawn by a scientific graphic artist. In perspective, such studies could help to overcome the difficulty of capturing the spatial extent and arrangement of anatomical structures from 2D images and to establish a link between three-dimensional anatomical preparations and two-dimensional sections or illustrations, as they have been found so far in common textbooks and anatomical atlases.     

A new monoclonal antibody (IE8) reactive with dendritically shaped cells in the human tonsil

A new monoclonal antibody (mAb), 1E8 (IgG1, k), was obtained from a hybrldoma prepared by fusion of mouse myeloma cells (NS-1) with splenic cells of mice immunized with a human B blastic malignant lymphoma cell line, HPE-Ret-3 (Ret-3). The mAb showed a reactivity unrestricted to a specific cell lineage on flow cytometrical analysis of the reacthttty with human lympho-hematopoietic cell lines. In peripheral blood, 1E8 reacted with the cells of all lineage, that is, lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes and platelets, even though its intenslty was very low by immunohistochem-Istry. Immunohistochemical examination of human tonsil with 1E8 showed a characteristic staining pattern. Positive cells scattered in follicular (mantle zone and germinal center), parafollicular (T-dependent area), subepithelial and interstitlal connective tissue areas. These positive cells seemed to be categorized into dendritically shaped cells (DSC), including dendrltic cells (DC) and a subpopulation of macrophages in follicles, interdigitating cells (IDC) and irregularly shaped mononuclear cells. The localization of 1E8 antigen staining was similar to that of integrin CDi l c, although its distribution on hematopoietic cell lines did not coincide with that of 1E8 antigen. lmmunobiochemical studies showed that 1E8 bound two cell surface proteins with molecular size of 70000–90000 and 35000 Da each. Consequently, 1E8 antigen might be a novel marker of DSC.     

Dendritic cells interacting mainly with B cells in the lymphoepithelial symbiosis of the human palatine tonsil

The lymphoepithelial symbiosis (LES) of the human palatine tonsil is composed of spindle- or star-shaped epithelial cells forming a loose meshwork, containing numerous lymphocytes and dendritic cells (DCs). In the present study, we immunohistochemically characterized DCs in the LES (LES-DCs). LES-DCs were phenotypically immature DCs that were S100β+, fascin−, HLA-DR+, CD1a−, CD80−, CD83−, CD86−, and CD123−. The most characteristic feature of LES-DCs was that they contacted many B cells, which were mostly IgM+ IgD+ resting naive B cells. Langerhans cells (LCs) located in the nonsymbiotic squamous epithelium were immature DCs that were S100β+, fascin−, and CD1a+ and did not contact lymphocytes. In contrast to LES-DCs, interdigitating dendritic cells (IDCs) in the T zone were mature DCs that were HLA-DR+, CD1a−, fascin+, CD80+, CD83+, and CD86+ and contacted numerous CD4+ T cells. Two subsets of IDC, S100β+ fascin+ IDC (IDC-1) and S100β− fascin+ IDC (IDC-2), were identified, and the majority of IDCs are IDC-2. In contrast to IDCs, which were distributed in the T-cell area in groups, LES-DCs were distributed along the crypt as if forming a barrier. These findings suggest that LES-DCs are a novel type of DC playing an important role in the induction of humoral immune response against incoming air- or food-borne pathogenic antigens.     

A rare occurrence of lymphoepithelial cyst in the palatine tonsil: a case report and discussion of the etiopathogenesis

Lymphoepithelial cysts are uncommon benign lesions that present as painless yellowish nodules arising from various sites in the oral cavity and other parts of the body. Their etiopathogenesis is controversial, but most authors have assumed that they develop from obstruction of crypts in oral lymphoid aggregates, thus they are not true cysts but pseudocysts of retention. This paper describes a case of a large lymphoepithelial cyst located in the tonsil of a 21-year-old man complaining of a lump in the throat for four months. The patient underwent excisional biopsy, and the histopathological features showed squamous epithelium surrounded by lymphoid tissue, which were characteristically consistent with a lymphoepithelial cyst. We discuss the etiopathogenesis of these lesions and treatment modalities, which can consist of conservative surgery or only follow-up examination.     

Morphology and immunology of the human palatine tonsil

At the surface of the respiratory and digestive organs the organism first comes into contact nasally and orally with various foreign agents and substances in the air and in food. The palatine tonsils are located at the centre of this strategic region. Immunological processes, both humoral and cellular, are initiated in the different specialised compartments of the palatine tonsils, such as the crypt epithelium, lymphoid follicles and extrafollicular region. Each compartment has a typical composition of lymphocytes and dendritic cell subsets. This review summarises current data on the anatomy, histology, and pathology of the human palatine tonsils, describes their fundamental immunological functions, and provides insight into the various interactions involved in the initiation of immune responses. The palatine tonsil is the only easily accessible human lymphoid organ and is often taken as an example for lymphoid organs. Although affections of the palatine tonsils constitutes an essential part in the clinical routine, it is still controversial whether tonsillectomy is of general benefit. This is of increasing importance since it has been discovered in the last few years that the palatine tonsils are reservoir and replication sites of HIV. Accepted: 24 July 2001     

The phenotype and fate of the antibody-forming cells of the splenic foci

The first product of the humoral response to antigen is low-affinity antibody, produced by extrafollicular foci of antibody-forming cells (AFC) in organs such as spleen and lymph node. These cells proliferate rapidly but then undergo an equally rapid decline, so that they are present in only small numbers 14 days after immunization. We have used 6-parameter flow cytometry to isolate and examine the characteristics of (4-hydroxy-5-nitrophenyl)acetyl-specific AFC, looking in particular for those markers that might differentiate them from cells of the intrafollicular (germinal center) arm of the T-dependent immune response. At day 7 of the primary response, most AFC were found to express surprisingly low levels of B220, high levels of syndecan, and retain significant levels of surface IgG1. We then used enzyme-linked immunospot assays to demonstrate that the rapid decline of these cells was not likely to be due to migration to organs such as the bone marrow. Their decline could, however, be explained by apoptosis in situ, which was demonstrated immunohistologically by nick-end labeling.     

Immunopathological features of palatine tonsil characteristic of IgA nephropathy: IgA1 localization in follicular dendritic cells

IgA nephropathy (IgAN) is generally thought to be mediated by the glomerular deposition of circulating immune complexes containing IgA as the major antibody component. Upper respiratory infections and tonsillitis often precede IgAN. and in some cases tonsillectomy is affective for the (treatment of IgAN. Thus, the tonsil seems to be a unique organ causing initial and/or progressive events to generate nephritogenic immune complexes in IgAN. in this study we focused on the analysis of immunopathological features of the palatine tonsil characteristic of IgAN patients by using an immunohistochemical technique. The IgAl subclass was demonstrated in follicular dendritic cells (FDC) of the tonsil of IgAN patients, but not in FDC of non-IgAN controls. On the other hand, IgA2, IgG, IgM and C3 did not show any differences in distribution between the two groups. Moreover, the expression of decay-accelerating factor (DAF), an inhibitor of homologous complement activation, and transforming growth factor-beta I (TGF-/β1). an inducer of antibody-producing ceils to IgA class switching, in FDC and interdigitating dendritic cells of the tonsil, respectively, which was also clarified in this study for the first time, was found to be identically distributed in the two groups. These findings may support the idea that IgA1. possibly in an immune complex form, is trapped by FDC and plays an important role in the persistent activation of particular B cell repertoires responsible for ihe onset and/or progression of IgAN.     

一株抗人BLys单克隆抗体的制备及其生物学功能研究

研究以稳定高表达BLys的基因转染细胞L-BLys为免疫原,常规免疫BALB/c小鼠,采用B淋巴细胞杂交瘤技术进行细胞融合,L-BLys细胞和天然表达BLys的HL60细胞为抗体筛选阳性细胞株,经免疫荧光标记分析反复筛选和以有限稀释法反复克隆化培养。将获得的克隆4F7培养细胞注射入经致敏的小鼠体内,-抽取的腹水经Protein G亲和层析柱纯化。将纯化所得的抗体作用于经BLys分子刺激的扁桃体B细胞,3H-TdR检测细胞的增殖效率。结果获得1株持续、稳定分泌鼠抗人BLys单克隆抗体的杂交瘤细胞株。该细胞株所分泌的抗体能阻断膜型和可溶性BLys分子对扁桃体B细胞的促增殖作用。对这株单克隆抗体生物学功能的研究表明,这株单抗能特异性识别人BLys分子及阻断膜型和可溶性BLys发挥生物学活性。     

PMA-activation of peripheral blood and tonsillar B lymphocytes induces large adhesive cells reminiscent of large extrafollicular (monocytoid) B cells

Extrafollicular (EF) B lymphocytes differ in size and morphology depending on the lymphatic organ involved and the kind of inflammatory reaction. On reevaluating EF B cells in various sites and conditions we discriminated three forms: a small (lymphoid) and intermediate (centrocytoid), and a large (monocytoid) variant. Immunohistochemically, these variants could be discriminated by their differential expression of adhesion molecules CD62L (L-selectin) and CD11c: small EF B cells were strongly L-selectin⁺ and CD11c^–; intermediate cells were moderately CD62L⁺ and CD11c^–; large cells were faintly CD62L⁺ or ^– but expressed CD11c. In 72 h cultures of normal peripheral and tonsillar B cells, cross-linking surface immunoglobulin in the presence of interleukin-2 or interleukin-4 led to formation of clusters in vitro together with an increase in cell size and a slight up-regulation of CD11c, as determined by flow cytometry. Stimulation with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), however, gave rise to large, plastic adherent cells which also showed strong homotypic adhesion, expressed CD62L at minimal levels and CD11c at comparably highest levels and altogether mimicked the large cell variant of EF B cells. We conclude that EF B cells are subjected to cytokine-induced metamorphosis and that differences in cell size and morphology reflect their state of activation and activation-associated adhesion properties. Our data suggest that EF B cells in all anatomical sites are functionally closely related cells which — possibly mediated by CD11c/CD18 — may become sessile and proliferate locally once activated by appropriate signals.     

An immuno-electron microscopic study on interactions among dendritic cells, macrophages and lymphocytes in the human palatine tonsil

The sites of interaction between antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells, macrophages) and lymphocytes in the human palatine tonsil were investigated by pre-embedding immuno-electron microscopy and acid-phosphatase histochemistry. Used in this study were: an S-100 protein antiserum recognizing Langerhans cells and interdigitating cells, OKT6 monoclonal antibody reacting with surface antigens of Langerhans cells, and Leu-3a monoclonal antibody directed to surface antigens of helper-T-cells. In the stratified squamous epithelium, Langerhans cells with characteristic rod-shaped or racket-shaped Birbeck granules exhibited S-100 protein and OKT6 immunoreactivites, and frequently extended long processes to adjacent lymphocytes. The subepithelial area contained a significant number of macrophages, some of which were closely apposed to interdigitating cells with S-100 protein immunoreactivity. Occasionally, macrophages with acid-phosphatase-positive phagosomes and/or lysosomes extended short processes to neighboring lymphocytes. In the interfollicular area, some interdigitating cells and a few Langerhans cells were seen in proximity to or in contact with lymphocytes stained with the Leu-3a antibody. These findings support previous in vitro studies suggesting the induction of T-cell activation by antigen-presenting cells. They further indicate that T-cell activation by the individual antigen-presenting cells takes place in different areas of the human palatine tonsil through a variety of cell-to-cell interactions.     

CD3和CD20阳性细胞在人胎腭扁桃体的发育方法

目的 探讨T、B细胞在人胎儿腭扁桃体内的发育情况.方法 收集9～20周因故终止妊娠胎儿腭扁桃体22例,采用免疫组织化学方法,以细胞表面分化群(CD)抗体(CD3和CD20)染色分别显示T细胞和B细胞,用BioMiaspro图像分析软件对免疫反应阳性细胞进行计数,有关数据做统计学分析.结果 妊娠9周时,胎儿腭扁桃体原基内...     

Identification of a tonsil IgD+ B cell subset with phenotypical and functional characteristics of germinal center B cells

We have identified and isolated a subpopulation of IgD⁺ B cells (IgD⁺ CD38⁺ B cells) from human tonsils which expresses the germinal center (GC)-associated surface markers CD10, CD38, CD75, CD77 and CD95/Fas. The heterogeneity of expression of several markers on IgD⁺ CD38⁺ B cells suggests that this population can be further subdivided into two discrete subtypes. On a functional basis, IgD⁺ CD38⁺ B cells behave as GC B cells as they rapidly and spontaneously undergo apoptosis in vitro and cannot be stimulated to synthesize DNA upon cross-linking of the antigen receptor. However, in contrast with most GC B cells, IgD⁺ CD38⁺ B cells have not completed Ig class switching since they predominantly secrete IgM following stimulation in vitro and lack surface expression of secondary isotypes. Immunoenzymatic staining performed on tonsil tissue sections revealed that IgD⁺ CD38⁺ B cells are located in two distinct histological structures: within the GC of a few classical secondary follicles, in which they appear as scattered cells, and within rare atypical GC, homogeneously constituted of IgD⁺ B cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that IgD⁺ CD38⁺ B cells constitute a novel subset of GC B cells. The possibility that these cells could represent an early stage of the follicular reaction or be generated in response to certain bacterial carbohydrate antigens is discussed.     

人外周血初始B细胞和记忆性B细胞亚群的特征和功能

B淋巴细胞是免疫系统的重要免疫成份,主要功能是介导体液免疫应答。在人外周血中,按照B淋巴细胞的发育阶段及功能的不同,可将B淋巴细胞分为初始成熟B细胞、记忆B细胞和浆细胞。记忆B细胞又可分为IgM记忆B细胞和类型转换的记忆B细胞。近年来的研究表明,B淋巴细胞的亚群远比人想象中的复杂,因此对人B细胞各亚群的起源、发育和功能进行更深入的研究,将有助于治疗自身免疫性疾病,在慢性感染性疾病的治疗过程中找到新的策略,并指导研发安全有效的疫苗。