脊柱化脓性骨髓炎的诊断及现代外科治疗

[目的]探究脊柱化脓性骨髓炎的特点及外科治疗方法。[方法]39例脊柱化脓性骨髓炎患者均行一期前路病灶清除加椎间植骨术。分析其临床表现、实验室、病原学及影像学特点和疗效。[结果]随访2~17年,平均8.5年。所有患者腰背疼痛均有缓解,其中17例疼痛完全消失,其余22例有时轻微疼痛。下肢神经功能除1例感觉障碍加重,均有不同程度改善,临床症状和体征改善率20%~100%,平均75.6%。所有患者均获得骨性融合,融合时间2~6个月,平均4个月。血沉从术前平均73mm/h恢复到术后平均29mm/h,而C反应蛋白全部恢复正常。无与手术直接相关的死亡及其他并发症。病原学结果:19例(48.7%)患者细菌培养阳性:金黄色葡萄球菌阳性10例,表皮葡萄球菌2例,大肠杆菌2例,绿脓杆菌2例,肺炎链球菌1例,肺炎克雷白杆菌1例,弗氏柠檬酸杆菌1例。[结论]患者本身的基础疾患是导致脊柱化脓性骨髓炎发病的重要因素之一,不仅金黄色葡萄球菌可以致病,某些条件致病菌或非致病菌如大肠杆菌及表皮葡萄球菌等也可以导致脊柱化脓性骨髓炎的发病;C反应蛋白比ESR及白细胞计数更为敏感,可用于脊柱化脓性骨髓炎的诊断及判定疗效的重要参考指标;MRI对脊柱化脓性骨髓炎的诊断更为敏感、特异及准确;一期前路病灶清除植骨术是治疗脊柱化脓性骨髓炎安全有效的手术方法。     

客观参数在儿童化脓性髋关节炎诊断中的敏感性

目的 :探讨客观参数在儿童化脓性髋关节炎诊断中的敏感性。方法 :通过回顾性分析 2 6例 6岁以下儿童 ,检测体温、白细胞计数和血沉在儿童化脓性髋关节炎诊断中的敏感性。结果 :平均体温 38.4℃ ,其中 6 5 %体温超过38℃。平均白细胞计数是 13.5× 10 9/L ,73%白细胞计数大于 0 .9× 10 9/L。平均血沉是 5 1mm/h ,95 %大于 2 0mm/h。虽然 35 %患者体温正常 ,2 7%白细胞计数正常 ,但仅 5 %血沉正常。新生儿无发热 (平均体温 36 .7℃ ) ,白细胞计数无增高 (平均 0 .93× 10 9/L) ,但血沉增高 (平均 4 5mm/h)。结论 :三项指标中 ,血沉是 6岁以下儿童化脓性髋关节炎最敏感指标     

化脓性脊柱感染的诊断和治疗选择

目的分析化脓性脊柱感染的病因、临床表现、实验室和影像学的诊断依据,以及各种治疗方案的效果。方法自1997年8月-2005年6月共收治化脓性脊柱感染患者10例,平均年龄58岁。10例中2例有脊柱外伤史,2例合并有糖尿病。患者常规进行平片、核磁共振及血常规、血沉、细菌培养等实验室检查。所有患者均接受抗生素治疗,5例患者接受手术。结果金黄色葡萄球菌是最常见的致病菌,糖尿病、外伤和他处感染病灶是本病的易感因素。所有患者血沉均增高,白细胞计数增高者占40%,C反应蛋白增高者占80%。10例中3例出现截瘫或者不全瘫,行手术治疗,术后患者瘫痪症状均有减轻,但程度不一。结论化脓性脊柱感染包括椎体骨髓炎、椎间盘炎、脊柱椎间盘炎、化脓性小关节感染和硬膜外脓肿。抗感染和制动是最基本的治疗措施,保守治疗无效,合并有硬膜外脓肿或者瘫痪的患者应行清创引流和减压手术。     

自制微泵局部抗生素注入治疗急性化脓性骨髓炎

目的 观察自制微泵局部抗生素注入治疗化脓性骨髓炎的临床效果。方法 将敏感抗生素溶液放入自制微泵中通过与之相连的硬膜外麻醉导管以4～6ml／h(最大流量34ml／h)的速度持续注入化脓性骨髓炎病灶6～10周。结果 18例患者全身中毒症状和局部炎症在3～7d得到有效控制。随访18例，随访时间最长2年4个月，最短6个月，平均1年3个月，17例愈合，1例复发。结论 利用自制微泵局部抗生素注入治疗化脓性骨髓炎可有效保证病灶中抗生素浓度，能提高化脓性骨髓炎的治愈率，有望成为治疗化脓性骨髓炎的一种新方法。     

一期前路病灶清除植骨融合内固定术治疗下颈椎化脓性骨髓炎

目的:探讨一期前路病灶清除、感染椎体次全切、自体髂骨植骨融合、钛板固定术治疗下颈椎化脓性骨髓炎的疗效。方法:2004年1月至2009年6月共收治17例下颈椎化脓性骨髓炎患者,男性14例,女性3例;年龄42~78岁,平均56.5岁。17例患者均有颈痛,9例伴发热,6例伴脊髓损伤,5例伴神经根性损伤。影像学检查13例有硬膜外脓肿形成,4例椎前脓肿形成伴椎体广泛破坏。均于广谱或敏感抗菌素治疗7~14d后行一期前路病灶清除、感染椎体次全切除、自体髂骨植骨融合、钛板内固定术。术后抗菌素治疗12~14周,定期复查血白细胞计数、血沉和C反应蛋白、颈椎正侧位X线片及CT,术后12个月行MRI检查。结果:手术时间50~150min,平均110min,术中无血管及神经损伤发生;术后2例切口浅层感染,经换药后愈合,无食管漏等严重并发症发生。所有患者于术后1周内颈痛缓解,体温恢复正常。13例于术后12周前白细胞计数、血沉、C反应蛋白均降至正常;4例白细胞计数正常,但血沉及C反应蛋白至术后9个月才降至正常。所有患者于术后12个月复查CT,16例植骨融合;1例融合失败,24个月随访时假关系形成。随访18~24个月,平均20.3个月,术前有脊髓和神经根损伤患者神经功能均完全恢复正常,感染均无复发。结论:在规范、有效、充分的围手术期抗菌素治疗期间行一期前路病灶清除、感染椎体次全切除、自体髂骨植骨融合、钛板内固定术是治疗下颈椎化脓性骨髓炎的有效方法。     

超声在婴儿化脓性骨关节感染保守治疗中的应用

目的 :探讨超声在婴儿化脓性骨关节感染保守治疗中的应用价值。方法 :对 14例婴儿急性化脓性骨髓炎和关节炎在超声引导下行局部穿刺 ,抗生素介入治疗 ,替代常规的切开引流术。结果 :全部病例在 1～ 2周内急性炎症基本得到控制。随访 6个月～ 8年 ,均无严重后遗症。结论 :超声引导下行关节腔或骨髓腔、骨膜下脓肿穿刺、抗生素介入治疗在婴儿及新生儿化脓性骨髓炎和关节炎的保守治疗中简便易行、创伤小、效果显著     

脊柱化脓性感染的诊断和手术治疗

目的分析脊柱化脓性感染的临床特点及手术治疗的效果。方法对12例脊柱化脓性感染的临床表现、实验室检查及影像学特点进行总结分析,均给予抗生素治疗,采用前路病灶清除植骨内固定术。结果术后脊柱无后凸畸形,无出现排斥反应,均获得骨性融合。结论脊柱化脓性感染患者血沉较白细胞计数敏感,C-反应蛋白是判断病情发展的重要指标,MRI对明确诊断有重要意义。采用前路病灶清除植骨内固定是一种安全、有效的治疗方法。     

成人血源性脊柱化脓性骨髓炎23例临床分析

目的 总结23例成人血源性脊柱化脓性骨髓炎(PDVO)的临床诊治经验.方法 对1999年7月至2006年10月收治的23例成人血源性PDVO患者的病史、临床表现、诊断、治疗及转归等进行回顾性分析.结果 本组23例,男15例,女8例;平均年龄55.4岁.诊治延误时间4周～11个月,平均4.4个月.其中患有或合并患有下述1种以上疾病的17例:糖尿病、泌尿系感染、酒精中毒、肝硬化、风湿性关节炎以及长期滥用糖皮质激素.全部23例实验室检查C反应蛋白和红细胞沉降率均有升高,而白细胞计数仅有9例升高.7例保守治疗;16例前路病灶清创植骨融合,其中11例脊柱不稳的选择适当的内固定,3例采用一期椎体侧前方钢板固定.7例采用二期后路融合椎弓根螺钉固定.本组23例全部获随访,随访时间6个月～7年,平均27个月.患者生活均能自理,无复发.手术治疗的患者,术后症状迅速缓解,植骨融合率达87.5%.结论 成人血源性PDVO好发于患有内科疾病的老年患者,血培养阳性有助于确诊.对于保守治疗失败的慢性PDVO的患者,手术清创植骨融合配合适当的内固定,能迅速缓解症状,安全有效.     

脊柱结核术后复发与血沉的关系探讨

目的：探讨脊柱结核术后复发与血沉的关系。方法：采用病灶清除术治疗胸腰椎结核80例,男36例,女44例;年龄20～71岁,平均38.2岁。以术前血沉40mm/h为界线分组：A组42例,手术前血沉≥40mm/h;B组38例,手术前血沉〈40mm/h。2组患者手术前后抗结核治疗程序一致,对2组患者手术后复发情况进行分析。结果：80例均获随访,A组平均随访36个月,5例术后局部复发;B组平均随访32个月,4例术后局部复发。两组间的复发率没有明显差别。结论：血沉不是脊柱结核手术时机选择的主要观察指标。     

骶骨钉内固定在腰骶区脊柱结核的应用

目的:探讨一期病灶清除、植骨融合、骶骨钉内固定治疗腰骶区脊柱结核的临床疗效。方法:自2004年3月至2008年11月,抗结核治疗2～3周后,采用经下腰椎侧方入路一期病灶清除、髂骨植骨及骶骨钉内固定治疗腰骶区结核11例,其中男5例,女6例;年龄29～56岁,平均(44.45±8.50)岁;病程8～15个月,平均11个月。患者均有不同程度腰骶部疼痛,1例伴下肢放射痛,2例鞍区麻木,6例伴有结核中毒症状。术前摄X线片,并行CT或MR检查,诊断为脊柱结核。术前控制结核中毒症状,血沉降低到(37.2±9.6)mm/h(25～54mm/h)。术前、术后评估腰骶角、视觉模拟评分及血沉变化。结果:患者均未出现术中及术后并发症,结核无复发,无窦道形成。随访时间平均(19.64±5.43)个月。腰骶角由术前的平均(12.9±5.0)°提高到术后的(21.5±6.1)°和末次随访时的(20.1±5.2)°(P<0.001)。视觉模拟评分和血沉由术前的(7.3±1.2)分和(37.2±9.6)mm/h降低到末次随访时的(0.6±0.5)分和(10.5±2.3)mm/h(P<0.001)。所有患者术后6～12个月骨融合,平均(9.0±1.9)个月。术前有神经功能损伤3例,术后神经功能恢复正常。结论:一期前路病灶清除、植骨融合、骶骨钉内固定是治疗腰骶区脊柱结核的一种有效方法。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.