The impact of intracranial pressure monitoring on mortality after severe traumatic brain injury

Background

The effect of intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring on mortality after severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) remains unclear. We hypothesized that ICP monitoring would not be associated with improved survival in patients with sTBI.

Methods

A retrospective analysis was performed on sTBI patients, defined as admission Glasgow Coma Scale score of 8 or less with intracranial hemorrhage. Patients who underwent ICP monitoring were compared with patients who did not. The primary outcome measure was inhospital mortality.

Results

Of 123 sTBI patients meeting inclusion criteria, 40 (32.5%) underwent ICP monitoring. On bivariate and multivariate regression analyses, ICP monitoring was associated with decreased mortality (odds ratio = .32, 95% confidence interval = .10 to .99, P = .049). This finding persisted on propensity-adjusted analysis.

Conclusions

ICP monitoring is associated with improved survival in adult patients with sTBI. In addition, significant variability exists in the use of ICP monitoring among patients with sTBI.     

Effect of total parenteral nutrition upon intracranial pressure in severe head injury

Animal investigations suggest that administration of hyperosmolar total parenteral nutrition (TPN) solutions may potentiate cerebral edema following head injury. Intravenous nutrition (TPN) is often required after head injury due to intolerance to enteral feeding (EN). This study evaluates the effect of TPN on intracranial pressure (ICP) measurements in severely brain-injured patients. Ninety-six severely brain-injured patients were randomly assigned to receive TPN or EN and were studied from hospital admission until 18 days postinjury. The TPN was started within 48 hours postinjury and the EN was started when tolerated. Peak daily ICP was not significantly different on admission and over time (overall mean +/- standard error of the mean 32.01 +/- 1.62 for TPN versus 32.5 +/- 1.25 for EN). Intracranial pressure was greater than 20 mm Hg in 75% of TPN patients and 73% of EN patients. Conventional therapy failed to control elevated ICP in 36% of TPN patients and 38% of EN patients. Of these patients, subsequent barbiturate therapy failed to control ICP in 56% of TPN patients and 64% of EN patients. Serum osmolality was not significantly different between groups at admission or over the course of the study. The TPN group tended to have higher mean serum glucose levels for the first 13 days postinjury, while the EN group had a higher mean serum glucose content thereafter, but these differences were not statistically significant. This study shows that TPN can be given safely to the severely brain-injured patient without causing serum hyperosmolality or affecting ICP levels or ICP therapy.     

Epidural monitoring of the intracranial pressure in severe head injury characterized by non-localizing motor response

Summary Recent studies on prognostic variables and the intensive care of head injuries enabled us to select 64 patients and administer a standard treatment protocol to prevent secondary brain injury. All the patients were in coma with a flexor motor pattern as the best response between 6 and 24 hours after the accident and/or decompressive surgery.Continuous epidural intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring was used in all patients to control the effect of positioning, analgetics, hyperventilation and osmotherapy.None of the patients with a normal initial ICP (15 mm Hg or less) developed an ICP increase leading to brain tamponade. A subsequent further rise to 40 mm Hg signified a very high risk of progression towards brain tamponade. The majority of the patients (71%) with a maximum ICP increase of less than 40 mm Hg had an acceptable recovery.After 6–12 months, the outcome in this series of patients was 48% with a good/moderate recovery, 14% with severe deficits and 38% dead/vegetative.Hans Kristian Nordby is a fellow of the Norwegian Research Council for Science and Humanities.Nils GunnerØd is a registered nurse.     

Continuous cerebral compliance monitoring in severe head injury: its relationship with intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure

Summary Background. Cerebral compliance expresses the capability to buffer an intracranial volume increase while avoiding a rise in intracranial pressure (ICP). The autoregulatory response to Cerebral Perfusion Pressure (CPP) variation influences cerebral blood volume which is an important determinant of compliance. The direction of compliance change in relation to CPP variation is still under debate. The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between CPP and compliance in traumatic brain injured (TBI) patients by a new method for continuous monitoring of intracranial compliance as used in neuro-intensive care (NICU).Method. Three European NICU’s standardised collection of CPP, compliance and ICP data to a joint database. Data were analyzed using an unpaired student t-test and a multi-level statistical model.Results. For each variable 108,263 minutes of data were recorded from 21 TBI patients (19 patients GCS≤8; 90% male; age 10–77 y). The average value for the following parameters were: ICP 15.1±8.9 mmHg, CPP 74.3±14 mmHg and compliance 0.68±0.3 ml/mmHg. ICP was ≥20 mmHg in 20% and CPP<60 mmHg for 10.7% of the time. Compliance was lower (0.51±0.34 ml/mmHg) at ICP≥20 than at ICP<20 mmHg (0.73±0.37 ml/mmHg) (p<0.0001). Compliance was significantly lower at CPP<60 than at CPP≥60 mmHg: 0.56±0.36 and 0.70±0.37 ml/mmHg respectively (p<0.0001). The CPP – compliance relationship was different when ICP was above 20 mmHg compared with below 20 mmHg. At ICP<20 mmHg compliance rose as CPP rose. At ICP≥20 mmHg, the relation curve was convexly shaped. At low CPP, the compliance was between 0.20 and 0.30 ml/mmHg. As the CPP reach 80 mmHg average compliance was 0.55 ml/mmHg., but compliance fell to 0.40 ml/mmHg when CPP was 100 mmHg.Conclusions. Low CPP levels are confirmed to be detrimental for intracranial compliance. Moreover, when ICP was pathological, indicating unstable intracranial equilibrium, a high CPP level was also associated with a low volume-buffering capacity.     

Relationship between hyperventilation and intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury

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标准大骨瓣开颅术结合颅内压监测治疗重型颅脑损伤

目的探讨标准大骨瓣开颅术结合颅内压监测治疗重型颅脑损伤的疗效。方法回顾性分析手术治疗重型颅脑损伤患者78例的临床资料,采用标准大骨瓣减压结合颅内压监测治疗38例患者为A组,采用常规骨瓣减压治疗40例患者为B组。比较两组患者术后6个月的临床疗效。结果 A组患者的临床效果好于B组。两组在术后6个月临床疗效方面比较,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论标准大骨瓣开颅术结合颅内压监测显著改善重型颅脑损伤患者的预后。     

The prognostic value of intracranial pressure monitoring after severe head injuries.

ICP monitoring appears not to be essential for the prognosis of head injury patients, but it may be of some clinical value in association with the neurological status and other clinical data. The results of ICP measurement show that a high level in brain pressure and the poor outcome have a better correlation with one another than a lower level of brain pressure and a good recovery.     

Comparison of mannitol regimens in patients with severe head injury undergoing intracranial monitoring

Eighty patients sustaining head injuries and presenting with Glasgow Coma Scale scores of 8 or less were entered into a prospective randomized study to assess the benefit of intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring with two regimens of mannitol administration. Group I was treated with mannitol for ICP elevations greater than 25 mm Hg, while Group II received empirical mannitol therapy irrespective of ICP readings. No statistically significant differences in mortality rate or neurological outcome were demonstrated between the two groups. These results are comparable to those of several published series of head-injured patients receiving similar treatment from 1977 to 1982. However, those series must be reassessed in light of recently published studies with treatment initiated at lower levels of ICP.     

Effect of cervical hard collar on intracranial pressure after head injury

Background: Patients suffering head trauma are at high risk of having a concomitant cervical spine injury. A rigid cervical collar is usually applied to each patient until spinal stability is confirmed. Hard collars potentially cause venous outflow obstruction and are a nociceptive stimulus, which might elevate intracranial pressure (ICP). This study tested the hypothesis that application of a hard collar is associated with an increase in ICP. Methods: A prospective series of 10 head‐injured patients with a postresuscitation Glasgow coma scale score of nine or less had ICP measurements before and after cervical hard collar application. Results: Nine out of 10 patients had a rise in ICP following application of the collar. The difference in pre‐ and postapplication ICP was statistically significant (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Early assessment of the cervical spine in head‐injured patients is recommended to minimize the risk of intracranial hypertension related to prolonged cervical spine immobilization with a hard collar.     

Continuous monitoring of intracranial compliance after severe head injury: relation to data quality, intracranial pressure and brain tissue PO2

The objective of the present study was to test the new continuous intracranial compliance (cICC) device in terms of data quality, relationship to intracranial pressure (ICP) and brain tissue oxygenation (PtiO2). A total of 10 adult patients with severe traumatic brain injury underwent computerized monitoring of arterial blood pressure, ICP, cerebral perfusion pressure, end-tidal CO2, cICC and PtiO2 providing a total of 1726 h of data. (1) The data quality assessed by calculating the 'time of good data quality' (TGDQ, %), i.e. the median duration of artefact-free time as a percentage of total monitoring time reached 98 and 99% for ICP and PtiO2, while cICC measurements were free of artefacts in only 81%. (2) Individual regression analysis showed broad scattered correlation between cICC and ICP ranging from low (r = 0.05) to high (r = 0.52) correlation coefficients. (3) From 225 episodes of increased ICP (ICP > 20 mmHg > 10 min), only 37 were correctly predicted by a preceding decline in cICC to pathological values (< 0.5 ml/mmHg). (4) In all episodes of cerebral hypoxia (PtiO2 < 10 mmHg > 10 min), cICC was not pathologically altered. Based on the present results, we conclude that the current hardware and software version of the cICC monitoring system is unsatisfactory concerning data quality, prediction of increased ICP and revelance of cerebral hypoxic episodes.     

High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury

In a five-center study, 73 patients with severe head injury and elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) were randomly assigned to receive either a regimen that included high-dose pentobarbital or one that was otherwise similar but did not include pentobarbital. The results indicated a 2:1 benefit for those treated with the drug with regard to ICP control. When patients were stratified by prerandomization cardiac complications, the advantage increased to 4:1. A multiple logistic model considering treatment and selected baseline variables indicated a significant positive treatment effect of barbiturates, a significant effect of time from injury to randomization, and an interaction of treatment with cardiovascular complications. However, of 925 patients potentially eligible for randomization, only 12% met ICP randomization criteria. The results support the hypothesis that high-dose pentobarbital is an effective adjunctive therapy, but that it is indicated in only a small subset of patients with severe head injury.     

Relationship between intracranial pressure monitoring and outcomes in severe traumatic brain injury patients

Intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring is recommended in patients with a severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and an abnormal computed tomography (CT) scan. However, there is contradicting evidence about whether ICP monitoring improves outcome. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between ICP monitoring and outcomes in patients with severe TBI. From February 2001 to December 2008, a total of 477 consecutive adult (> or =18 years) patients with severe TBI were included retrospectively in the study. Patients who underwent ICP monitoring (n=52) were compared with those who did not (n=425). The primary outcome was hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes were ICU mortality, mechanical ventilation duration, the need for tracheostomy, and ICU and hospital length of stay (LOS). After adjustment for multiple potential confounding factors, ICP monitoring was not associated with significant difference in hospital or ICU mortality (odds ratio [OR] = 1.71, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.79 to 3.70, P = 0.17; OR = 1.01, 95% CI = 0.41 to 2.45, P = 0.99, respectively). ICP monitoring was associated with a significant increase in mechanical ventilation duration (coefficient = 5.66, 95% CI = 3.45 to 7.88, P < 0.0001), need for tracheostomy (OR = 2.02, 95% CI = 1.02 to 4.03, P = 0.04), and ICU LOS (coefficient = 5.62, 95% CI = 3.27 to 7.98, P < 0.0001), with no significant difference in hospital LOS (coefficient = 8.32, 95% CI = -82.6 to 99.25, P = 0.86). Stratified by the Glasgow Coma Scale score, ICP monitoring was associated with a significant increase in hospital mortality in the group of patients with Glasgow Coma Scale 7 to 8 (adjusted OR = 12.89, 95% CI = 3.14 to 52.95, P = 0.0004). In patients with severe TBI, ICP monitoring was not associated with reduced hospital mortality, however with a significant increase in mechanical ventilation duration, need for tracheostomy, and ICU LOS.     

有创颅内压监护在重型脑损伤术后的应用

目的探讨有创颅内压监护在重型脑损伤术后的临床应用价值。方法选取2011年1月-2012年9月于我院进行开颅手术及脑室外引流术的重型颅脑损伤患者108例,根据随机原则分为实验组和对照组,每组54例。实验组和对照组患者均采用止血、抗感染、脱水、神经营养等治疗。实验组：使用Codman颅内压监护仪对患者进行硬膜下的颅内压监护。对照组：对患者颅内压不进行检测,仅按照传统方法进行颅内压预测和治疗。结果实验组和对照组相比在甘露醇使用时间及用量、肾功能损害程度和电解质紊乱等并发症的发生率、预后评估等各方面差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论使用颅内压监护可以明显提高重型颅脑损伤患者的临床疗效,值得推广应用。     

The management of head injury and intracranial pressure

Severe head injury occurs predominantly in the young population. Although the incidence is decreasing in the United Kingdom, the eventual outcome of these patients has major social and economic implications. Damage to brain tissue during head injury is both primary, due to the initial insult, or secondary, which occurs later. Because little can be done about the primary injury, the intensive care management is targeted at reducing the secondary insults which may cause further brain damage. The prevention of secondary injury involves prompt airway management and treatment of hypoxia and hypotension. Severe head injury often causes raised intracranial pressure (ICP). The management is focused on maintaining cerebral perfusion pressure, which should be maintained above 70 mmHg by adequate fluid replacement or by the judicious use of inotropes. The methods to control ICP include general measures (15° head up position, avoidance of jugular venous obstruction, prevention of hyperthermia and hypercarbia) and neurospecific measures. The neurospecific measures are particularly useful in patients with refractory intracranial hypertension. The patient may need sedation, paralysis, use of barbiturate coma, osmotherapy, moderate cooling, controlled hyperventilation or surgical intervention. This review focuses on the rationale for the use of these interventions, outlining their benefits and their pitfalls.     

右美托咪啶对重度颅脑损伤患者术后颅内压的影响

目的 探讨右美托咪啶对重度颅脑损伤患者术后颅内压(ICP)的影响.方法 急诊行开颅手术的重度颅脑损伤患者90例,性别不限,年龄19～64岁,ASA分级Ⅱ或Ⅲ级,格拉斯哥昏迷量表评分3～7分,采用随机数字表法,将患者随机分为3组(n=30):对照组(C组)和不同剂量右美托咪啶组(D1组和D2组).气管插管后,D1组或D2组分别静脉输注右美托咪啶0.3或0.7μg· kg-1 ·h-1,持续48 h.手术结束前,将微型传感器植入硬脑膜外,持续监测ICP,术后2d内若ICP≥30 mm Hg则静脉注射地塞米松0.2 mg/kg、甘露醇0.5 mg/kg和甘油果糖0.25 mg/kg.于麻醉诱导后(T0)、术后6 h(T1)、12 h(T2)、24 h(T3)时采集外周静脉血样,采用ELISA法测定血清IL-1β和TNF-α浓度;术后90 d采用格拉斯哥预后量表评分进行临床疗效分级;记录地塞米松、甘露醇和甘油果糖的用量.结果 与T0时比较,三组T1～T3时血清IL-1β和TNF-α浓度升高(P＜0.05);与C组比较,D1组和D2组T1～T3时血清IL-1β和TNF-α浓度、地塞米松、甘露醇、甘油果糖用量降低,临床疗效分级升高(P＜0.05);与D1组比较,D2组T1～T3时血清IL-1β和TNF-α浓度、地塞米松、甘露醇、甘油果糖用量降低,临床疗效分级升高(P＜0.05).结论 右美托咪啶可降低重度颅脑损伤患者术后ICP,有利于患者预后,且与剂量有关;其机制可能与降低TNF-α、IL-1β水平,抑制炎性反应有关.     

Metoclopramide-induced raised intracranial pressure after head injury

We report a case of raised intracranial pressure in a head-injured patient following the intravenous administration of metoclopramide. The patient required admission to an intensive care unit after a road traffic accident. A CT scan of the head was consistent with diffuse axonal injury and supportive management included intracranial pressure monitoring. On the third day after admission, intravenous metoclopramide 10mg was administered to aid gastric emptying during nasogastric feeding. Intracranial pressure increased to 39mmHg from a baseline of 15-20mmHg. The same dose of metoclopramide was repeated the next day during transcranial doppler studies with an increase in ICP to 34mmHg and an associated rise in middle cerebral artery systolic blood velocity from 122cms-1 to 150cms-1. This effect of metoclopramide has not been previously reported.