Evaluation of antivenom therapy for Vipera palaestinae bites in children: experience of two large,tertiary care pediatric hospitals

Background: Antivenom has been successfully used to treat systemic and progressive, local manifestations of envenomation inflicted by Vipera (V.) palaestinae, the most common venomous snake in Israel. The objective of this study was to evaluate the fixed dose V. palaestinae monovalent (equine) immunoglobulin G antivenom used in two pediatric emergency departments. In particular, we wanted to assess the need for repeated antivenom administration and the rate of adverse antivenom effects in children.

Methods: A retrospective chart review was performed for all children admitted with definite or probable signs of V. palaestinae envenomation to Chaim Sheba Medical Center and Kaplan Medical Center between 1 March 2008 and 1 March 2014. Extracted data included: age, location of bite, time to hospital arrival, time to antivenom administration if indicated, outcomes, and complications of the envenomation and adverse effects to the antivenom.

Results: 57 patients met inclusion criteria; they ranged from 1 to 17 years in age and median age was 9.5 years. Clinical manifestations were evident in 55 (96.4%) of victims: 18 presented with minimal local signs and 37 showed marked progressive, local features (rapidly progressing edema) and signs of systemic envenomation: tachycardia (20), vomiting (17), abdominal pain (11) and hypotension (6). Two patients developed compartment syndrome and underwent surgical decompression (both received only a loading dose of antivenom with no subsequent maintenance dose). One patient developed thrombocytopenia and three patients presented with mild coagulopathy. Antivenom was administered to 25 (42%) children. Indications for antivenom administration included moderate to severe local signs (19 patients) and systemic signs (6 patients). None of these patients developed adverse reactions, serum sickness, or other side effects to the antivenom. One patient received a single additional 30mL dose of antivenom, due to hypotension and syncope, with good response.

Conclusions: In children, 50?ml dosing of V. palaestinae antivenom is efficacious and safe for the treatment of systemic and progressive local manifestations of envenomation by V. palaestinae.     

Incidence of serum sickness after the administration of Australian snake antivenom (ASP-22)

Context: Serum sickness is a delayed immune reaction resulting from the injection of foreign protein or serum. Antivenom is known to cause serum sickness but the incidence and characteristics are poorly defined. Objective: To investigate the incidence and clinical features of serum sickness following the administration of Australian snake antivenoms. Materials and methods: This was a prospective cohort study of patients recruited to the Australian Snakebite Project who received snake antivenom from November 2012 to March 2014. Demographics, clinical information, laboratory tests and antivenom treatment were recorded prospectively. Patients administered antivenom were followed up at 7–10 days and 6 weeks’ post-antivenom. The primary outcome was the proportion with serum sickness, pre-defined as three or more of: fever, erythematous rash/urticaria, myalgia/arthralgia, headache, malaise, nausea/vomiting 5–20 days post-antivenom. Results: During the 16-month period, 138 patients received antivenom. 23 were not followed up (unable to contact, tourist, child, bee sting) and 6 died in hospital. Of 109 patients followed up, the commonest reason for antivenom was venom induced consumption coagulopathy in 77 patients. An acute systemic hypersensitivity reaction occurred post-antivenom in 25 (23%) and 8 (7%) were severe with hypotension. Serum sickness occurred in 32/109 (29%) patients, including 15/37 (41%) given tiger snake, 6/15 (40%) given polyvalent and 4/23 (17%) given brown snake antivenom. There was no association between the volume of antivenom and serum sickness, p?=?0.18. The commonest effects were lethargy, headache, muscle/joint aches and fever. Discussion: The incidence of serum sickness after snake antivenom in Australia was higher than earlier investigations which failed to define symptoms or follow-up patients, but similar to more recent studies of antivenoms in the United States. Conclusion: Serum sickness is common with Australian snake antivenom but does not appear to be predictable based on the volume of antivenom administered.     

Snake Eyes: Coral Snake Neurotoxicity Associated With Ocular Absorption of Venom and Successful Treatment With Exotic Antivenom

Background

Coral snake bites from Micrurus fulvius and Micrurus tener account for < 1% of all snake bites in North America. Coral snake envenomation may cause significant neurotoxicity, including respiratory insufficiency, and its onset may be delayed up to 13 h.

Safety profile of snake antivenom (use) in Hong Kong – a review of 191 cases from 2008 to 2015

Introduction: The mainstay of treatment for significant envenoming from snakebites is antivenom. However, there is insufficient data regarding the safety of antivenom used in Hong Kong. We describe the incidence of hypersensitivity reactions from antivenom use and review the frequency and reasons for intensive care unit (ICU) admission.

Methods: The Hong Kong Poisons Information Centre database was reviewed. All patients given snake antivenom between 2008 and 2015 were included. Patient demographics, species of snake involved, details of antivenom used, treatment location, use of pre-treatment, reasons for ICU admission (where applicable) and details of early and late antivenom reactions were extracted.

Results: There were 191 patients who received snake antivenom. Most (93%) were treated with either the green pit viper antivenom from Thailand or the Agkistrodon halys antivenom from China. The incidences of early hypersensitivity reactions to green pit viper antivenom and Agkistrodon Halys antivenom were 4.7% and 1.4%, respectively. Most patients (69%) were managed in the ED observation ward or general ward. There were 59 patients managed in ICU, most (90%) of whom were admitted for close monitoring during antivenom administration. There were no cases of significant morbidity from antivenom administration. Eight patients (5.6%) had features suggestive of mild serum sickness.

Conclusions: The incidence of immediate hypersensitivity reaction to antivenom commonly used in Hong Kong is low. Majority of patients were managed safely in the emergency department observation ward or general ward. Serum sickness appears to be uncommon and possible cases presented with mild features.     

Envenomation by a death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) in Perth

Objective: Recently it has been recommended that a combination of brown snake and tiger snake antivenom be given to a patient envenomed by an unidentified snake in Perth, except when the bite occurred in the areas where the death adder is prevalent. We present the first reported case of envenomation by a death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) in Perth, with a view to examining the appropriateness of that recommendation. Clinical features: A 36 year old woman, bitten in a suburb of Perth where death adders are not usually seen, presented with progressive paralysis. Intervention and outcome: Rapid and complete recovery immediately after one ampoule of death adder antivenom confirmed the diagnosis of death adder envenomation. Conclusion: The recommendation is appropriate. Death adder envenomation is in effect “the exception that proves the rule”. Vigilance for this rare envenomation is necessary.     

Mulga snake (Pseudechis australis) envenoming: a spectrum of myotoxicity,anticoagulant coagulopathy,haemolysis and the role of early antivenom therapy – Australian Snakebite Project (ASP-19)

Context. Mulga snakes (Pseudechis australis) are venomous snakes with a wide distribution in Australia. Objective. The objective of this study was to describe mulga snake envenoming and the response of envenoming to antivenom therapy. Materials and methods. Definite mulga bites, based on expert identification or venom-specific enzyme immunoassay, were recruited from the Australian Snakebite Project. Demographics, information about the bite, clinical effects, laboratory investigations and antivenom treatment are recorded for all patients. Blood samples are collected to measure the serum venom concentrations pre- and post-antivenom therapy using enzyme immunoassay. Results. There were 17 patients with definite mulga snake bites. The median age was 37 years (6–70 years); 16 were male and six were snake handlers. Thirteen patients had systemic envenoming with non-specific systemic symptoms (11), anticoagulant coagulopathy (10), myotoxicity (7) and haemolysis (6). Antivenom was given to ten patients; the median dose was one vial (range, one–three vials). Three patients had systemic hypersensitivity reactions post-antivenom. Antivenom reversed the coagulopathy in all cases. Antivenom appeared to prevent myotoxicity in three patients with high venom concentrations, given antivenom within 2 h of the bite. Median peak venom concentration in 12 envenomed patients with samples was 29 ng/mL (range, 0.6–624 ng/mL). There was a good correlation between venom concentrations and the area under the curve of the creatine kinase for patients receiving antivenom after 2 h. Higher venom concentrations were also associated with coagulopathy and haemolysis. Venom was not detected after antivenom administration except in one patient who had a venom concentration of 8.3 ng/ml after one vial of antivenom, but immediate reversal of the coagulopathy. Discussion. Mulga snake envenoming is characterised by myotoxicity, anticoagulant coagulopathy and haemolysis, and has a spectrum of toxicity that is venom dose dependant. This study supports a dose of one vial of antivenom, given as soon as a systemic envenoming is identified, rather than waiting for the development of myotoxicity.     

Acute Coronary Syndrome From Green Snake Envenomation

BackgroundSnake bite is a grossly underreported public health issue in subtropical, tropical suburban, and rural areas of Africa and South Asia. In literature, ophitoxemia (snake bite envenomation) as a cause of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is limited to very few case reports. Viper envenomation is the most common cause of ACS among snake bites. We report the first case of unstable angina caused by Colubridae snake bite (Ahaetullanasuta, commonly called green snakes) in a young man without comorbidities.Case ReportA young healthy man had a green snake bite that was camouflaged in the green fodder. He was managed elsewhere with anti-snake serum. He developed acute chest pain and breathlessness on day 3 of his treatment. Electrocardiogram (ECG) showed biphasic T wave inversions suggestive of type A Wellens pattern in the anterior chest leads (V1–V4). He was treated for ACS medically outside and was referred to our institute for further management on the following day. ECG and cardiac enzymes were normal. The echocardiogram showed no regional wall motion abnormality. Computed tomography coronary angiography showed normal epicardial coronaries. He was discharged in stable condition and asymptomatic at 2 months follow-up.Why Should an Emergency Physician Be Aware of This?ACS after a snake bite is not limited to venomous snakes. The diagnosis should be considered promptly even with a nonvenomous snake bite, especially in those with typical symptoms and ECG changes. The time interval between snake bite and development of ACS can be long and warrants prolonged medical supervision.     

Hemothorax after snake bite

Hemothorax after snake bite is very rare and unusual presentation. Administration of antivenom with supportive measures and close monitoring can prevent further deterioration. Delays in the transportation of patients to health facilities where antivenom and other therapeutic resources are provided can lead to devastating consequences.     

Bitten by the "flying" tree snake, Chrysopelea paradisi

Background

The paradise tree snake, Chrysopelea paradisi, is a rear-fanged colubrid. Like other members of the genus Chrysopelea, it is able to glide through the air, and thus, is commonly known as a “flying snake.” There are few documented effects of its bite on humans.

Case Report

A 16-year-old military college student presented to the Emergency Department (ED) of an urban teaching hospital 2 h after being bitten by C. paradisi. There were multiple bite marks and the patient reported moderate pain on the left index finger. There was no evidence of significant local or systemic envenomation. A transient prolonged coagulation profile and raised creatine kinase level were noted.

Conclusion

The full effects of a bite from C. paradisi remain uncharacterized. This case featured only mild local effect. After the administration of first aid, non-sedating analgesia, anti-tetanus toxoid injection, and broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage, a short stay in the ED observation ward with regular monitoring of vital signs and serial wound inspection are recommended. More effort is required to increase awareness of the prevention and management of snakebite with equal emphasis on conservation of wildlife and their natural habitat.     

Cross neutralization of coral snake venoms by commercial Australian snake antivenoms

Context: Although rare, coral snake envenomation is a serious health threat in Brazil, because of the highly neurotoxic venom and the scarcely available antivenom. The major bottleneck for antivenom production is the low availability of venom. Furthermore, the available serum is not effective against all coral snake species found in Brazil. An alternative to circumvent the lack of venom for serum production and the restricted protection of the actually available antivenom would be of great value. We compared the Brazilian coral snake and mono and polyvalent Australian antivenoms in terms of reactivity and protection.

Methods: The immunoreactivity of venoms from 9 coral snakes species were assayed by ELISA and western blot using the Brazilian Micrurus and the Australian pentavalent as well as monovalent anti-Notechis, Oxyuranus and Pseudechis antivenoms. Neutralization assays were performed in mice, using 3 LD₅₀ of the venoms, incubated for 30 minutes with 100?μL of antivenom/animal.

Discussion: All the venoms reacted against the autologous and heterologous antivenoms. Nevertheless, the neutralization assays showed that the coral snake antivenom was only effective against M. corallinus, M. frontalis, M. fulvius, M. nigrocinctus and M. pyrrhocryptus venoms. On the other hand, the Australian pentavalent antivenom neutralized all venoms except the one from M. spixii. A combination of anti-Oxyuranus and Pseudechis monovalent sera, extended the protection to M. altirostris and, partially, to M. ibiboboca. By adding Notechis antivenom to this mixture, we obtained full protection against M. ibiboboca and partial neutralization against M. lemniscatus venoms.

Conclusions: Our findings confirm the limited effectiveness of the Brazilian coral snake antivenom and indicate that antivenoms made from Australian snakes venoms are an effective alternative for coral snake bites in South America and also in the United States were coral snake antivenom production has been discontinued.     

Suspected snakebite: One year prospective study of emergency department presentations

Aim: Snakebite is an uncommon, but potentially life‐threatening condition. The more common clinical scenario is suspected snake‐bite. Our aim was to characterise the epidemiology, diagnosis and management of patients with suspected snakebites. Methods: Prospective cohort study of patients presenting with suspected snakebites to a tertiary referral hospital serving a large rural region in tropical northern Australia where a standard admission protocol for suspected snakebites is used. Results: Of 70 suspected snakebite cases, there were 45 definite bites: three severe envenomings (two western brown snakes [Pseudonaja nuchalis] and one mulga snake [Pseudechis australis]); seven mild/moderate envenomings by other snakes, two non‐envenomings by identified P. nuchalis, five bites by identified non‐venomous snakes and 28 definite bites without envenoming. The remaining 25 cases were either suspected bites (8), unlikely bites (15) and two people hit by snakes. Definite snake‐bites occurred throughout the year, peaking in May and December. There were three severe envenomings (mainly coagulopathy), requiring antivenom treatment, but no deaths or major complications. Most patients had appropriate investigations. Of 47 venom detection kit swabs collected, 34 were not tested, venom was not detected in nine and was positive in the three envenomings with one false‐positive tiger snake. Whole blood clotting time was highly sensitive for procoagulant coagulopathy and envenoming in this study. Median length of time from the bite to discharge was 20 h (interquartile range: 12–27). Conclusions: The study shows that although suspected snakebite was common, severe envenoming occurred in less than 5% of cases. The study supports the proposition that a structured approach and admission policy of suspected snakebites leads to the appropriate management of severe envenoming, with no cases discharged early and no cases of non‐envenoming treated with antivenom.     

Collett's snake (Pseudechis colletti) envenoming in snake handlers

BACKGROUND: Collett's snake (Pseudechis colletti) is a member of the black snake genus and occurs in a warm temperate to sub-tropical region of central Queensland, Australia. There are no reports of bites occurring in the wild, and bites were previously thought to cause only minor effects. They are a popular snake among zoos and exotic snake keepers. AIM: To investigate the clinical effects of severe envenoming by Collett's snake, and possible treatment options. DESIGN: Case series. METHODS: Clinical and laboratory features are described for six bites, all in snake handlers. RESULTS: All six bites were from captive snakes, resulting in severe envenoming in four. Two patients were treated early with black snake antivenom, and only developed an anticoagulant coagulopathy and mild myolysis. Two developed anticoagulant coagulopathy and severe rhabdomyolysis associated with acute renal failure, requiring haemodialysis; both received antivenom >10 h after the bite, and initially received minimal fluid replacement. Other effects included thrombocytopenia, non-immune haemolytic anaemia and a marked leukocytosis. DISCUSSION: Collett's snake envenoming is characterized by early generalized systemic effects (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea and headache) and an anticoagulant coagulopathy, followed in some cases by rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure in untreated patients within 24 h. Early initiation of fluid therapy and treatment with black snake antivenom should be undertaken in all envenomed patients.     

Clotting factor replacement and recovery from snake venom-induced consumptive coagulopathy

Introduction  Using clotting factors (fresh frozen plasma and/or cryoprecipitate) to treat snake venom-induced consumptive coagulopathy (VICC) is controversial. We aimed to determine if factor replacement after antivenom is associated with an earlier return of coagulation function. Methods  We retrospectively analysed VICC cases due to brown snake (genus Pseudonaja), tiger snake (Notechis, Tropidechis, and Hoplocephalus), and taipan (Oxyuranus) envenoming. Recovery of international normalized ratio (INR)/prothrombin time (PT) was compared between patients who did not receive factor replacement and those who did, and between patients who received factor replacement ≤ 4 h of commencing antivenom and those who received factor replacement later or not at all. Results  There was no significant difference between cases receiving clotting factors and cases that did not, however in 21 cases having factor replacement within 4 h, the median time to coagulation recovery was 4.6 h (interquartile range [IQR] 3.5–8.8), versus 9.5 h (IQR 7.3–13) in 106 cases who had clotting factors later or not at all (P < 0.001). No serious adverse effects attributed to clotting factors were recorded. Recovery by 6 h after starting antivenom was also more likely in those who were younger, in tiger snake envenoming, and where the interval between bite and starting antivenom was longer. The initial dose of antivenom did not appear to influence the likelihood of recovery at 6 h. Conclusion  Early factor replacement after antivenom is associated with earlier improvement of coagulation function. Randomised controlled clinical trials to determine the efficacy and safety of factor replacement for VICC after venom neutralisation are required. On behalf of the ASP investigators. This article is discussed in the editorial available at: doi:.     

Early administration of Fab antivenom resulted in faster limb recovery in copperhead snake envenomation patients

Background: No previous research has studied whether early snake antivenom administration leads to better clinical outcomes than late antivenom administration in North American pit viper envenomation.

Methods: A secondary analysis of data from a clinical trial of Fab antivenom (FabAV) versus placebo for copperhead snake envenomation was conducted. Patients treated before the median time to FabAV administration were classified as receiving early treatment and those treated after the median time were defined as the late treatment group. A Cox proportional hazards model was used to compare time to full recovery on the Patient-Specific Functional Scale (PSFS) instrument between groups. Secondary analyses compared estimated mean PSFS scores using a generalized linear model and the estimated proportion of patients with full recovery at each time point using logistic regression. To evaluate for confounding, the main analysis was repeated using data from placebo-treated subjects.

Results: Forty-five subjects were treated with FabAV at a median of 5.47?h after envenomation. Patients in the early treatment group had a significantly shorter time to full recovery than those treated late (median time: 17 versus 28 days, p?=?.025). Model-estimated PSFS scores were numerically higher at each time point in the early group. No difference was found between patients treated early versus late with placebo.

Conclusions: In this secondary analysis of trial data, recovery of limb function was faster when Fab antivenom was administered soon after envenomation, as opposed to late administration.     

Prenatal diagnosis of fetal hypothyroidism after maternal radioactive iodine exposure during pregnancy

A 33‐year‐old woman with a history of surgically treated papillary thyroid carcinoma was inadvertently given radioactive iodine when she was 16 weeks pregnant. Sonographic examination revealed fetal thyroid hypoplasia, and cordocentesis confirmed fetal hypothyroidism at 22 weeks. The pregnancy was terminated at 24 weeks. We report the first case of fetal thyroid hypoplasia diagnosed by ultrasound and cordocentesis. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound, 2010     

Furuncular Myiasis From Dermatobia Hominus: A Case of Human Botfly Infestation

Background: Travelers to tropical regions are at risk for a myriad of exotic illnesses. Malaria and dengue are diagnoses that are associated with insect bites, in particular, mosquito bites, acquired while traveling in foreign, tropical countries. Infestation with Dermatobia hominus, the human botfly, endemic to South and Central America, is usually transferred via a mosquito vector. The human botfly should be considered in patients who have traveled to these endemic regions and present with a mosquito bite history and non-healing skin lesions. Objectives: We present this case to increase awareness among emergency physicians regarding furuncular myiasis from the human botfly. Case Report: A 39-year-old pregnant woman presented to the Emergency Department (ED) with an intensely pruritic lesion to the right calf and mild systemic symptoms 6 weeks after travel to Belize. The lesion she thought was a mosquito bite had persisted despite escalating treatment modalities and had been incorrectly diagnosed by multiple physicians. Conclusion: Parasitic disease is not always a systemic process. Botfly infestation presents as local boil-like lesions that are irritating and uncomfortable. Once correctly identified, it can be easily treated in the ED.     

超声软指标联合母体血清甲胎蛋白和人绒毛膜促性腺激素筛查胎儿染色体异常

目的 观察孕中期超声软指标联合检测血清甲胎蛋白（AFP）和人绒毛膜促性腺激素（HCG）用于筛查胎儿染色体异常的价值。方法 对1 625名接受孕中期产前检查孕妇以常规腹部超声检测胎儿超声软指标，采用免疫层析法检测母体血清AFP和HCG。将胎儿多个超声软指标（≥2个）阳性者归为高危孕妇（高危组），行羊膜腔穿刺术及羊水细胞染色体核型检查；对低危孕妇进行产后随访，与筛查结果进行对比。结果 共检出64胎胎儿染色体异常，包括染色体数目异常35胎、结构异常29胎。于高危组167名中发现40胎胎儿染色体异常，包括染色体数目异常23胎、结构异常17胎。母体血清AFP及HCG水平筛查胎儿染色体异常的敏感度分别为64.60%和98.50%，特异度分别为66.00%和14.40%，曲线下面积（AUC）分别为0.701和0.788，截断值分别为56.24 ng/ml和19.36 ng/ml；母体血清AFP联合HCG筛查胎儿染色体异常的敏感度为71.88%，特异度为93.66%，AUC为0.796。超声软指标联合检测母体血清AFP、HCG诊断胎儿染色体异常的敏感度均高于单项指标（P均<0.05）。结论 孕中期超声软指标联合母体血清AFP、HCG检测可提高检出胎儿染色体异常的敏感度，有效筛选胎儿染色体异常的高危孕妇。     

Human cytokine response to Texas crotaline envenomation before and after antivenom administration

Objective

The aim of this study was to characterize the human cytokine response to Texas crotaline envenomation before and after antivenom administration.

Methods

This study enrolled crotaline bite victims presenting to a regional trauma center and children's hospital from March to November 2007 and age-matched unbitten controls. Blood spot cards were obtained from bite victims at presentation and at 1 and 6 hours after antivenom administration. One control sample was drawn from each of the age-matched controls selected from urgent care patients presenting for minor complaints. Samples were delivered to a laboratory using a proprietary method for quantitative evaluation of a large number of biomarkers in parallel with bead-based multiplex immunoassays.

Results

After obtaining informed consent, 14 crotaline bite victims (age range, 5-85 years; median age, 45 years; 50% female) (Snakebite Severity Score, 2-7; median, 3) and 14 age-matched controls were enrolled. There were 7 copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) bites, 4 rattlesnake (probably Western Diamondback Crotalus atrox) bites, 2 cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus) bites, and 1 bite from a snake that was not identified by the victim. In t tests, the means in the presentation samples for apolipoprotein A-I (Apo A-I), Apo C3, interleukin 4 (IL-4), myeloperoxidase, plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1), epidermal growth factor, and regulated upon activation, normal t-cell expressed and secreted were significantly lower and Apo H was significantly higher in the bite patients than in the controls. In the 1-hour sample, α₁-antitrypsin, Apo A-I, Apo C3, eotaxin, IL-4, myeloperoxidase, and PAI-1 levels were lower and prostatic acid phosphatase and cancer antigen 125 levels were higher in the bite patients than in the controls. And in the 6-hour sample, α₁-antitrypsin, Apo A-I, Apo C3, endothelin-1, IL-4, macrophage inflammatory protein 1β, myeloperoxidase, and epidermal growth factor levels were lower and Apo H level was higher in the bite patients than in controls (all P values < .05).

Conclusions

Crotaline venom produces a broad cytokine response in human bite victims. In particular, IL-4, myeloperoxidase, and Apo A-I and C3 levels remain altered despite antivenom therapy, whereas PAI-1 and regulated upon activation, normal t-cell expressed and secreted levels seem to normalize after antivenin as other markers are affected. Understanding this profile and further study of the markers identified might lead to improved therapies and better prognostic indicators.     

Australian taipan (Oxyuranus spp.) envenoming: clinical effects and potential benefits of early antivenom therapy – Australian Snakebite Project (ASP-25)

Context: Taipans (Oxyuranus spp.) are medically important venomous snakes from Australia and Papua New Guinea. The objective of this study was to describe taipan envenoming in Australian and its response to antivenom.

Methods: Confirmed taipan bites were recruited from the Australian Snakebite Project. Data were collected prospectively on all snakebites, including patient demographics, bite circumstances, clinical effects, laboratory results, complications and treatment. Blood samples were taken and analysed by venom specific immunoassay to confirm snake species and measure venom concentration pre- and post-antivenom.

Results: There were 40 confirmed taipan bites: median age 41 years (2–85 years), 34 were males and 21 were snake handlers. Systemic envenoming occurred in 33 patients with neurotoxicity (26), complete venom induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC) (16), partial VICC (15), acute kidney injury (13), myotoxicity (11) and thrombocytopenia (7). Venom allergy occurred in seven patients, three of which had no evidence of envenoming and one died. Antivenom was given to 34 patients with a median initial dose of one vial (range 1–4), and a median total dose of two vials (range 1–9). A greater total antivenom dose was associated with VICC, neurotoxicity and acute kidney injury. Early antivenom administration was associated with a decreased frequency of neurotoxicity, acute kidney injury, myotoxicity and intubation. There was a shorter median time to discharge of 51?h (19–432?h) in patients given antivenom?<4?h post-bite, compared to 175?h (27–1104?h) in those given antivenom?>4?h. Median peak venom concentration in 25 patients with systemic envenoming and a sample available was 8.4?ng/L (1–3212?ng/L). No venom was detected in post-antivenom samples, including 20 patients given one vial initially and five patients bitten by inland taipans.

Discussion: Australian taipan envenoming is characterised by neurotoxicity, myotoxicity, coagulopathy, acute kidney injury and thrombocytopenia. One vial of antivenom binds all measurable venom and early antivenom was associated with a favourable outcome.