约氏疟原虫感染不同小鼠免疫分子的应答差异

目的探讨在约氏疟原虫感染过程中不同宿主的免疫应答差异。方法以约氏疟原虫（致死型）感染DBA／2和BALB／c小鼠，计算红细胞感染率；收集感染前和感染后1、3、6、9、12、15、20d小鼠血清，并无菌取出脾脏，培养脾细胞。应用ELISA试剂盒检测小鼠血清中IFN-γ和IL-12水平，并通过Griess方法检测脾细胞培养上清中NO含量。结果DBA／2小鼠的原虫血症峰值水平明显低于BALB／c小鼠，并于感染后第20d左右自愈；BALB／c小鼠于原虫血症达到峰值水平后全部死亡；DBA／2小鼠的IFN-γ和IL-12水平于感染后1d即出现了有意义的升高并持续到第20d；BALB／c小鼠的IFN-γ和IL-12水平仅干感染后1d出现了有意义的升高；DBA／2小鼠NO的产生于感染后3d出现了有意义的升高，第6d达到峰值，而BALB／c小鼠的NO水平始终未见明显升高。结论DBA／2小鼠通过感染早期Th1细胞免疫应答的有效建立能够抑制原虫血症，IL-12是启动并维持Th1细胞免疫应答的关键性细胞因子。     

Protective immunity induced by daily bites from irradiated mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium yoelii

Individuals in malaria endemic regions do not develop fully protective immune responses against Plasmodium liver stage infections. In high transmission areas, individuals can be exposed to more than two infective mosquito bites daily. Their exposure to Plasmodium sporozoites, therefore, is in the form of small and frequent doses. This is very different from individuals studied in controlled immunization trials where the delivery of large numbers of radiation-attenuated sporozoites in a limited number of doses can induce sterile protective immunity. Using irradiated mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium yoelii 17XNL, we tested whether daily bites from a few mosquitoes can induce a protective immune response in mice. This immunization strategy successfully induced a protective response, preventing the development of liver stages when mice were challenged with nonirradiated sporozoites. These results provide further support for the development of liver stage vaccines. They are also a call for further study into why fully protective responses against the liver stage are not seen in individuals from endemic regions.     

青蒿琥酯治疗对约氏疟原虫感染小鼠特异性免疫建立的影响

目的阐明青蒿琥酯治疗对约氏疟原虫感染小鼠特异性免疫建立的影响。方法DBA/2和BALB/c小鼠经腹腔感染约氏疟原虫后均分为三组:感染后未治疗组、感染第3天和第6天青蒿琥酯治疗组。初次感染痊愈后30天用同种疟原虫再次感染,再感染疟原虫清除后30天进行第三次感染,观察每次感染后小鼠原虫血症水平和对重复感染的特异性抵抗能力。结果未治疗的自然自愈组和不同时间治疗组的DBA/2小鼠,其再次感染的感染率、原虫血症水平基本相同,第三次感染均未见疟原虫感染的红细胞;除非治疗组BALB/c小鼠于初次感染早期死亡外,不同时间治疗组的BALB/c小鼠再次感染的感染率与虫体血症水平、第三次感染情况与各组DBA/2小鼠也无差异。结论对于约氏疟原虫初次感染免疫应答能力不同的DBA/2和BALB/c小鼠,青蒿琥酯根治性治疗不影响其特异性免疫的建立和免疫记忆性的维持。     

香菇多糖对约氏疟原虫感染BALB/c小鼠Th1型应答的调节作用

目的探讨香菇多糖(Lentinan,Lent)对致死型约氏疟原虫(Plasmodium yoelii 17XL,Py17XL)感染BALB/c小鼠Th1型细胞免疫应答的调节效应。方法对Py17XL感染的BALB/c小鼠进行不同时间点的Lent预处理,动态观察用药后各组感染小鼠原虫血症水平和生存率;于感染后第0d、1d、3d和5d分别提取小鼠脾细胞,ELISA法检测脾细胞培养上清中IL-12、IFN-γ的分泌水平,Griess反应检测脾细胞培养上清中一氧化氮(NO)含量。结果与药物未处理组相比,感染前15d 1mg/kg Lent用药组显著降低感染小鼠的原虫血症水平,提高生存率;明显增强Th1型免疫应答中关键细胞因子IL-12、IFN-γ的分泌水平,并提高NO含量。结论Lent预处理能够有效激发Py17XL感染的BALB/c小鼠Th1型细胞免疫应答的建立,提示调控免疫应答对于致死型约氏疟原虫感染早期免疫防御的重要性。     

特异性IgG抗体作为宿主抗约氏疟原虫再感染关键效应分子的研究

目的探讨再感染早期宿主保护性免疫应答的相关机制。方法采用致死型约氏疟原虫(Plasmodiumyoelii 17XL,Py17XL)感染抵抗型DBA/2小鼠,待全部小鼠自愈后用同种疟原虫株再次攻击。吉姆萨薄血膜染色法观察小鼠原虫血症水平;被动转移实验评估免疫血清的保护性作用;流式细胞仪检测脾中T、B细胞亚群动态变化。结果2/3小鼠能够完全抵御同种疟原虫再感染,仅1/3小鼠出现一过性低水平原虫血症,且于再感染后第8d自愈;免疫血清显著抑制初次感染小鼠原虫血症水平并延长其生存期;与初次感染相比,再感染早期脾CD4+T细胞、B220+和B220lowCD138+(浆细胞)亚群数目显著增加。结论特异性IgG抗体在宿主抗再感染免疫中发挥重要作用,记忆性T、B细胞可能为宿主保护性免疫应答的关键参与者。     

A comparison of saponin with other adjuvants for the potentiation of protective immunity by a killed Plasmodium yoelii vaccine in the mouse

The protective immunity conferred by subcutaneous injection of outbred CD-1 mice with a killed Plasmodium yoelii (YM strain) vaccine was strongly potentiated by saponin. By adjusting the dose of antigen, the number of immunizations and the number of living parasites in the challenge infection, conditions were defined where antigen alone was non-protective but 100% protection was obtained by the addition of saponin. Inbred BALB/c, CBA/CA and C57 Bl mice were much less responsive than the CD-1 mice. The following adjuvants were compared with saponin: mineral oil emulsions (Freund's incomplete and complete adjuvants); Al(OH)₃(Alhydrogel); bacteria and synthetic bacterial derivatives ( Bordetella pertussis, Corynebacterium parvum and muramyl dipeptide); surface active materials (digitonin, vitamin A, Arquad 18, dimethyldioctadecyl ammonium bromide, and the polyene antibiotics, Nystatin and Amphotericin B). None of these adjuvants were as effective as saponin, although FCA, Al(OH)₃ and C. parvum augmented immunity considerably. The possible reasons for the efficacy of saponin as an adjuvant for protozoal vaccines are discussed. The P. yoelli /mouse system provides a sensitive and rapid screening assay for comparison of potential adjuvants suitable for use with a malaria vaccine.     

致死型约氏疟原虫感染DBA/2小鼠保护性免疫机制的研究

目的 观察约氏疟原虫(P.yoelii) 17XL感染DBA/2小鼠的免疫应答机制及免疫效应的动态变化。方法 1×10⁶ P.yoelii 17XL感染的红细胞经腹腔接种DBA/2小鼠, ELISA测定血清白细胞介素-12 (IL-12)、干扰素-γ( IFN-γ)、IL-4和IL-10的水平以及特异性抗体IgG水平。Griess反应检测脾细胞培养上清中一氧化氮(NO)含量。检测小鼠原虫血症、单核细胞百分率,观测其吞噬疟原虫现象。结果 感染小鼠第9天原虫血症高达46.9%,多数小鼠于感染后第20天左右自愈。感染后第6至16天,外周血查见有吞噬作用的单核细胞。感染后第1天起, IL-12水平开始升高; IFN-γ于第6天达最高水平, IL-4和IL-10分别于第9天和第15天达最高水平。脾细胞培养上清NO含量,分别于第6天和第20天显著升高。血清中特异性抗体IgG水平呈增高趋势,至第70天达最高水平。结论 Th1细胞的有效活化对遏制原虫血症和最终清除疟原虫具有重要意义。约氏疟原虫感染早期,单核-巨噬细胞对原虫血症的遏制起到关键作用。     

约氏疟原虫感染对小鼠黑色素瘤的抑制作用

目的观察约氏疟原虫17XL虫株感染对小鼠黑色素瘤的抑制作用。方法取C57BL/6小鼠20只,腋下注射传代培养的B16F10黑色素瘤细胞;次日,将小鼠随机分为约氏疟原虫(P.y)感染组和对照组2组,10只/组;P.y感染组小鼠每只腹腔注射1×106个含虫红细胞率为20%的小鼠红细胞;对照组小鼠腹腔注射等量的C57BL/6小鼠正常红细胞。观察两组小鼠黑色素瘤出瘤时间并测量肿瘤的体积。结果 P.y感染组小鼠黑色素瘤出瘤时间为注射黑色素瘤细胞后(11.30±0.21)d,晚于对照组[(10.40±0.22)d](P0.05);自可精确测量瘤体起至实验终点,2组小鼠肿瘤均不断增长,P.y感染组瘤体体积均显著小于对照组(P均0.05);P.y感染组瘤体生长速度为(71.10±6.29)mm3/d,明显慢于对照组[(302.80±49.94)mm3/d](P0.05),且P.y感染组肿瘤每日生长速度亦明显慢于对照组(P均0.05)。结论约氏疟原虫感染可以延缓肿瘤出瘤时间,且对小鼠黑色素瘤瘤体的增长具有明显的抑制作用。     

Toll样受体在约氏疟原虫感染早期树突状细胞应答中的作用地位

目的探讨致死型约氏疟原虫(Plasmodium yoelii17XL,P.y17XL)感染早期,Toll样受体(Toll like receptor,TLR)在树突状细胞(dendritic cells,DCs)活化中的作用地位。方法用P.y17XL感染易感的BALB/c和抵抗的DBA/2小鼠,计数红细胞感染率;制备感染前和感染后第3d、5d小鼠脾细胞悬液,采用流式细胞分析技术检测两种小鼠感染不同时间脾细胞悬液中细胞内表达TLR9(Toll like receptor 9,TLR9)的DCs和细胞表面表达TLR4(Toll like receptor 4,TLR4)的DCs的百分含量。结果两种小鼠脾DCs细胞内TLR9的表达水平均于感染后第3d开始明显升高(P<0.01),在第5d达到最高水平(P<0.01),但两种小鼠相比无统计学意义。同时,两种小鼠DCs表面TLR4的表达水平均未见明显变化。结论在P.y17XL感染早期,TLR9可能是介导DCs活化的模式识别受体。     

Distinct host‐related dendritic cell responses during the early stage of Plasmodium yoelii infection in susceptible and resistant mice

The diverse outcomes of experimental murine infection with Plasmodium parasites, ranging from spontaneous cure to death, depend largely on the establishment of an effective Th1 immune response during the early stages of infection. However, the molecular and cellular factors responsible for the induction and regulation of this response are poorly understood. As immunity is initiated by dendritic cells (DCs), we compared their phenotype and function during the early stages of infection with Plasmodium yoelii 17XL (P.y 17XL) strain in susceptible (BALB/c) and resistant (DBA/2) mice. Resistant DBA/2 mice developed a greater number of myeloid (CD11c⁺CD11b⁺) and mature DCs, which were fully functional and capable of secreting IL‐12p40. In contrast, susceptible BALB/c mice produced more plasmacytoid (CD11c⁺CD45R/B220⁺) and less mature DCs, resulting in high levels of IL‐10 and TGF‐β1. In addition, an in vitro experiment confirmed that splenic DCs from the two strains of mice differ in their ability to prime CD4⁺T cells in response to P.y 17XL stimulation. These findings indicate that the subset, the phenotype and the type of inflammatory and anti‐inflammatory signals of splenic DCs are critical factors responsible for the discrepancy in the ability to induce or regulate Th1 immune responses in different hosts.     

Naturally acquired immunoglobulin (Ig)G subclass antibodies to crude asexual Plasmodium falciparum lysates: evidence for association with protection for IgG1 and disease for IgG2

There is longstanding evidence for a role of immunoglobulin (Ig)G in protection against malarial disease and infection. IgG1 and IgG3 have been shown to be particularly efficient at associating with monocytes in potentially protective mechanisms (i.e. antibody-dependent cellular inhibition, opsonization and phagocytosis). Conversely, there is some evidence that IgG2 (and possibly IgG4) antibodies may be antagonistic to this protection. The protective effect of IgG subclass antibody activity present before the beginning of a malaria transmission season (preseason antibody levels) against severe malaria has not been tested in longitudinal studies. We measured IgG class and subclass antibody levels specific to crude Plasmodium falciparum lysates by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay in a case-control study of 76 children on the coast of Kenya. The mean optical density values for both IgG class and subclass antibodies were not significantly different between the children who developed severe malaria and those who remained healthy during an observation period of two malaria transmission seasons. However, elevated levels of IgG1 in relation to levels of IgG2 and IgG4 antibodies were associated with protection from severe malaria (P = 0.02). Conversely, elevated levels of IgG2 in relation to IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies were associated with a higher risk of developing severe malaria (P = 0.006).     

CD4~+CD25~+调节性T细胞在约氏疟原虫感染小鼠应答早期中的作用

目的探讨CD4+CD25+调节性T细胞在约氏疟原虫感染早期的作用及意义。方法用约氏疟原虫(致死型)感染DBA/2和BALB/c小鼠,计数红细胞感染率;在感染后第0d、3d、4d、5d和6d提取脾细胞应为,流式细胞术检测两种小鼠感染不同时间脾细胞悬液中CD4+T细胞和CD4+CD25+T细胞百分含量;ELISA法检测脾细胞培养上清IFNγ、IL10和TGFβ1水平。结果DBA/2小鼠的IFNγ水平在感染后第3d迅速升高后缓慢下降(P<0.01),CD4+CD25+T细胞数仅在感染后第5d出现有意义的升高(P<0.05),而IL10水平和CD4+T细胞数量都无明显改变。BALB/c小鼠的IFNγ水平在感染后第3d出现有意义的升高后迅速下降(P<0.01),CD4+CD25+T细胞数在感染后第3d开始明显升高,于感染后第5d出现下降(P<0.05),而IL10水平自感染后第3～6d持续维持高水平(P<0.05),CD4+T细胞数量于感染后第6天明显下降(P<0.05)。结论CD4+CD25+调节性T细胞在致死型约氏疟原虫感染BALB/c小鼠早期可能通过抑制性细胞因子IL10发挥免疫抑制作用。     

调节性T细胞抑制约氏疟原虫感染小鼠早期Th1应答的建立

目的探讨调节性T细胞(Tregs)参与约氏疟原虫感染早期调控Th1型免疫应答的相关机制。方法用约氏疟原虫(致死型)感染对照组和anti-CD25 mAb注射组BALB/c小鼠,计数红细胞感染率;感染后第0、3和5d制备脾细胞悬液,磁珠分选、纯化树突状细胞(DCs)并体外培养;ELISA方法检测脾细胞培养上清中IFN-γ和DCs培养上清中IL-12的水平,Griess方法检测脾细胞培养上清中NO含量。结果两组小鼠脾细胞培养上清中IFN-γ和NO水平在感染后第3～5d均明显升高,但对照组小鼠IFN-γ和NO水平明显低于anti-CD25 mAb注射组小鼠。anti-CD25 mAb注射组小鼠DCs培养上清中IL-12的水平于感染后第3d达峰值,并于感染后第5d仍维持较高水平。相比,对照组小鼠DCs培养上清中IL-12的水平仅于感染后第3d出现有意义的升高。结论Tregs在致死型约氏疟原虫感染BALB/c小鼠早期可能通过抑制DCs分泌细胞因子IL-12来抑制Th1型免疫应答的有效建立。     

Killing of the malarial parasite Plasmodium yoelii in vitro by cells of myeloid origin

Summary Cytotoxic effects of mouse cells on Plasmodium yoelii were sought directly by incubating parasitized red cells with cells of various kinds for 16 h and then determining the percentage parasite survival in vivo , in terms of infectivity for the mouse. Cell populations rich in lymphocytes, e. g. lymph node and spleen, were less active than peritoneal cells and blood. Parasite killing by peritoneal cells was associated with macrophages: treatment with anti-macrophage serum (AMS) or depletion by adherence or centrifugation on Ficoll decreased activity. Polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN) in induced exudates may have contributed to killing, although not as actively cell for cell, and an effect of eosinophils in worm-induced exudates was not excluded. White blood cells were most active of all and fractionation on Ficoll confirmed that lymphocytes were relatively ineffective. The effector cell was phagocytic but it was insensitive to AMS. Tests on populations with high or low proportions of PMN showed that parasite killing was independent of PMN number. It is concluded that the effector cell belongs to the monocyte-macrophage series and has acquired the ability to kill the parasite before becoming fully differentiated into a macrophage.     

Limiting dilution analysis of the T cell response to Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi in mice

A limiting dilution assay system was developed in order to measure the in-vitro T cell response to antigens of the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium chabaudi. The conditions of the assay are such that only CD4+ T cells are able to respond. The assay allows the determination of the frequencies of T cells which proliferate and/or which develop into helper cells for antibody production during a primary infection. A specific response from splenic T cells can be measured as early as 7 days after infection, and is still significant 3 months after injection of P. chabaudi. At all times the frequency of proliferating cells was greater than the precursor frequency of T helper cells. This suggests that a proportion of CD4+ T cells in this assay, although they respond to malarial antigen, do not develop into helper cells for antibody production. This limiting dilution assay will be a useful method by which to evaluate the functional heterogeneity of the CD4+ T cell response to malaria antigens.     

Prolonged Th1-like response generated by a Plasmodium yoeli-specific T cell clone allows complete clearance of infection in reconstituted mice

In the present study, we report the ability of in vitro cultured CD4⁺ T cells, generated following immunization with dead blood stage P. yoelii parasites, to mediate protection against homologous challenge infection in reconstituted nude mice. P. yoelii -specific T cell line cells produced IFN-γ after in vitro stimulation with specific antigen, and were protective when adoptively transferred into athymic nude mice. Following transfer of P. yoelii -specific T cell lines into nude and SCID mice, elevated levels of nitric oxide (NO) were detected during the first week of infection at a time when parasitaemias were suppressed. However, in vivo blocking of NO production through administration of L-NMMA, an inhibitor of NO synthase, increased mortality, but did not alter the course of primary parasitaemia in P. yoelii- specific T cell line-reconstituted nude mice. In addition, a P. yoelii -specific CD4⁺ T cell clone, which produced IFN-γ in vitro , afforded sterile protection via mechanisms other than NO. By ELISA, antibodies were undetectable on all but one day (day 79) post T cell clone transfer and parasite challenge, where very low levels of antibodies were detected, with some evidence of recognition of malaria proteins by Western blot. Collectively, our data suggest that T cell effector functions, independent of NO production and in the absence of high levels of parasite-specific antibodies, can contribute to sterile immunity to P. yoelii .     

Efficient control of Plasmodium yoelii infection in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice with pre-existing Strongyloides ratti infection

About 225 million malaria cases have been reported worldwide in 2009, and one-third of the world's population is infected with parasitic helminths. As helminths and Plasmodium are co-endemic, concurrent infections frequently occur. Helminths have been shown to modulate the host's immune response; therefore, pre-existing helminth infections may interfere with the efficient immune response to Plasmodium. To study the interaction between helminths and Plasmodium, we established a murine model of co-infection using the gastrointestinal nematode Strongyloides ratti and Plasmodium yoelii. We show that a pre-existing Strongyloides infection slightly enhanced peak parasitemia and weight loss in P. yoelii-infected BALB/c mice, while disease progression was not altered in co-infected C57BL/6 mice. The Plasmodium-induced IFN-γ production and final clearance of Plasmodium infection were not affected by S. ratti co-infection in both C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice. Interestingly, the T helper cell (Th) 2 response induced by S. ratti was significantly suppressed upon P. yoelii co-infection. This suppressed Th2 response, however, was still sufficient to allow expulsion of S. ratti parasitic adults. Taken together, we provide evidence that simultaneous presence of helminth and protist parasites does not interfere with efficient host defence in our co-infection model although changes in Th responses were observed.     

Differential immunoglobulin E and cytokine responses in BALB/c and C57Bl/6 mice during repeated infections with blood-stage Plasmodium chabaudi malaria

Repeated blood-stage Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi AS challenge infections in BALB/c and C57Bl/6 mice result in increased serum immunoglobulin (Ig) E levels and splenic cytokine production. The genetic background of the host influences both the cytokine response as well as the development of IgE antibodies. BALB/c mice showed high interleukin (IL)-4 secretion from splenocytes after in-vitro stimulation with malaria antigen after repeated P. chabaudi challenges and this was closely followed by higher levels of total IgE. Despite slightly elevated serum IgE levels, splenocytes from C57Bl/6 mice did not secrete any detectable IL-4 but produced interferon (IFN)-gamma in response to malaria antigen-stimulation in vitro. These data suggest that induction of IgE antibodies during murine malaria infection is genetically regulated.     

Influence of genes within the MHC on mortality and brain cyst development in mice infected with Toxoplasma gondii: kinetics of immune regulation in BALB H-2 congenic mice

Previous work has shown that genes within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of the mouse influence resistance and susceptibility to Toxoplasma gondii infection. Initial studies presented here using B10 H-2 congenic and recombinant haplotype mice inoculated via the oral route with the low virulence Beverley strain of T. gondii confirm the D region localization of MHC-linked control of brain cyst number. All B10 mice were, however, exquisitely sensitive to minor changes in virulence of the parasite inoculum resulting in high mortality during the early acute phase of infection. Further experiments examining mortality and brain cyst number in BALB MHC congenic mice inoculated via different routes indicated that the BALB background would provide a more favourable genetic environment in which to analyse kinetics of MHC controlled immune regulation following infection via the natural (oral) route. In studies comparing d and k haplotype mice a dramatic inverse relationship between splenic CD4:CD8 T cell ratios and brain cyst number was observed, particularly in the strain (BALB/K; H-2^k) most susceptible to high brain cyst numbers and subsequent toxoplasmic encephalitis. Of particular interest was the observation that splenomegaly and the relative increase in the splenic CD8 T cell population preceded and accompanied the very dramatic and rapid increase in brain cyst formation. The results suggest that the too rapid development of a potent anti-parasite response in the viscera may drive the parasite to encyst in the brain.     

Thrombopoietin in Plasmodium falciparum malaria

Thrombopoietin (TPO) is the key growth factor for platelet production and is elevated in states of platelet depletion. As thrombocytopenia is a common finding in malaria, we analysed TPO regulation before, during and after antimalarial treatment. Before treatment, TPO serum levels were significantly higher in patients with severe malaria (n = 35) than in patients with uncomplicated malaria (n = 44; P = 0.024), normalizing within 14-21 d of therapy. The rapid normalization of TPO levels and increase in low peripheral platelet counts after treatment indicate that the biosynthesis of TPO and its regulation in malaria patients are normal.