Comparative analysis of the performance of the Postpartum Depression Screening Scale with two other depression instruments

BACKGROUND: Postpartum depression affects approximately 13% of mothers but up to 50% of all cases of this tragic illness can go undetected. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the performance of a newly created instrument, the Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS), with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and a general depression scale, the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). METHOD: In this methodological design a total of 150 new mothers completed these three instruments in random order, followed immediately by a DSM-IV diagnostic interview. Using the LABROC I program, the areas under each of the instrument's Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves were compared to determine if they were significantly different. RESULTS: Eighteen (12%) of the women were diagnosed with major postpartum depression, 28 women (19%) with minor postpartum depression, and 104 women (69%) with no depression. Compared to the EPDS, the PDSS had a significantly larger area under the ROC curve when screening for major or minor postpartum depression. When using the published recommended cut-off scores for major depression for the three instruments, the PDSS achieved the highest combination of sensitivity, 94%, and specificity, 98%. When detecting women with major or minor postpartum depression, the PDSS again yielded the highest combination of sensitivity (91%) and specificity (72%) of the three instruments. The PDSS identified 17 (94%) of the women diagnosed with major postpartum depression, the EPDS identified 14 of these women (78%), and the BDI-II identified 10 of the 18 women (56%). CONCLUSION: If mothers identified as "most depressed" are substantially determined by the instrument used, the implications for both research and clinical practice are significant. Researchers and clinicians need to be aware of the differential sensitivity of depression instruments which, while supposedly measuring the same construct, are focused on different components of this mood disorder.     

两种筛查量表早期发现产后抑郁的效果对比

目的比较产后抑郁筛查量表（PDSS）和爱丁堡产后抑郁量表（EPDS）在产后抑郁筛查中的应用价值。方法采用PDSS、EPDS及美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版轴Ⅰ障碍定式临床检查患者版（SCID—I／P）同时对445名产后6周的妇女进行评定,以SCID—I／P作为产后抑郁诊断金标准。结果两种量表的临界值分别为74分和10分。PDSS的灵敏度（93．33％）和特异度（94．75％）的组合较好。PDSS与EPDS的ROC曲线下面积分别为0．978和0．872,差异均有统计学意义（P均〈0．05）。结论与EPDS相比,PDSS具有较好的筛检价值,是早期发现产后抑郁患者的简单、快速、准确的筛查工具。     

Validation of the culturally adapted Edinburgh postpartum depression scale among east Asian,southeast Asian and south Asian populations: A scoping review

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is a widely used self-report instrument to screen for postpartum depression (PPD). Assessing the relevance of the EPDS as a screening tool for minority ethnic populations is pertinent for ensuring culturally appropriate care. This scoping review aimed to explore what is known about the cultural adaptations of the EPDS in antepartum and postpartum mothers and fathers in East Asian, Southeast Asian and South Asian populations, and to what extent these adaptations are able to accurately screen for postpartum depression symptoms among these cultural groups. The scoping review was guided by the PRISMA-ScR checklist. The search strategy included databases of MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, CINAHL and Grey literature. Included studies were primary articles published in English language peer-reviewed journals that investigated the validation or cultural adaptation of the EPDS in mothers who were pregnant and/or had recently given birth, or fathers who were new parents, and were limited to the following cultural groups, whether living locally or abroad in a foreign country: East Asian, Southeast Asian or South Asian populations. Thirty-six of 2469 studies met criteria for inclusion. Twenty-one of 36 studies utilizing a culturally validated EPDS demonstrated a cut-off score lower than the original recommended cut-off. Important themes identified included the Role of Culture, Somatization of PPD, Method of Interview, and contrasting performance compared to other scales used to assess depression and/or anxiety. Accessibility to translated and validated EPDS and mindfulness of ethnically relevant EPDS cut-off scores are critical when using this tool among minority ethnic populations.     

Postpartum Depression Screening Scale: development and psychometric testing

BACKGROUND: Approximately 400,000 mothers in the United States experience postpartum depression each year. However, only a small proportion of these women are identified as depressed by health care professionals. OBJECTIVES: To improve detection of this postpartum mood disorder, the purpose of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of a newly devised instrument, the Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS), a 35-item Likert-type self-report instrument. METHODS: Content validity was supported through the literature and the judgments rendered by a panel of five content experts and a focus group. The PDSS was administered to 525 new mothers. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis provided empirical support for the existence of the hypothesized seven dimensions. A Tucker-Lewis goodness-of-fit index of 0.87 and a root mean square residual of 0.05 were judged supportive of model fit. Item response theory techniques provided further construct validity support for finer interpretations of the respective seven dimensions. Analysis of the Likert 5-point response categories further supported meaningful score interpretations. Alpha internal consistency reliabilities ranged from 0.83 (sleeping/eating disturbances) to 0.94 (loss of self). CONCLUSIONS: Empirically, all of the reliability and validity analyses supported the score interpretations posited for the PDSS. Currently, the sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value of the PDSS are being determined.     

Validation of two postpartum depression screening scales with a sample of First Nations and Métis women.

The purposes of this study were to determine the prevalence of postpartum depression (PPD) and to examine the utility of the Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS) and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) in First Nations and Métis women in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. A total of 103 women who had given birth in the preceding 1 to 12 months were recruited from the city of Regina and from First Nations health centres in Saskatchewan. Self-report screening instruments assessing PPD were administered along with a structured clinical interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders (SCID) to confirm the diagnosis of PPD. Of the 103 women, 17% were diagnosed with PPD. The findings support the validity of the PDSS and the EPDS as measures of PPD in First Nations and Métis women. The author discusses the need for primary health care professionals, including nurses, to offer postnatal screening for women who may be at risk for PPD.     

Validation of the Edinburgh postpartum depression scale in a population of puerperal women in Mexico

Background

The Edinburgh postnatal depression scale (EPDS) has been validated and used successfully in detecting postnatal depression in several language versions in a number of countries. However, there is not any Mexican version of the EPDS that had been validated. Therefore, we sought to validate a Spanish translated Mexican version of the EPDS in a population of puerperal Mexican women.

Methods

One hundred puerperal women within their three month postpartum period attending routine postnatal consultations in a public hospital in Durango City, Mexico participated in the study. The participants were divided into two groups: one group included 49 women with less than 4 weeks of postpartum, and the other group included 51 women within 4 to 13 weeks of postpartum. All participants submitted a Spanish translated Mexican version of the EPDS and were interviewed by a psychiatrist to assess major and minor depression by using DSM-IV criteria.

Results

Out of the 49 women with less than 4 weeks of postpartum, 4 were found as suffering from major depression and none from minor depression by using the DSM-IV criteria. In this group of women we found that the best EPDS score for screening depression was 11/12. This threshold showed a sensitivity of 75% (95% CI: 63.8–86.2), a specificity of 93% (95% CI: 84.6–100), a positive predictive value of 50%, a negative predictive value of 97.6%, and an area under the curve of 0.84. While in the 51 women within 4 to 13 weeks of postpartum, 7 were found as suffering from major depression and 1 from minor depression by using the DSM-IV criteria. In this group we found that the best EPDS score for screening depression was 7/8. This threshold showed a sensitivity of 75% (95% CI: 66.1–83.9), a specificity of 84% (95% CI: 76.1–91.9), a positive predictive value of 46.2%, a negative predictive value of 94.7% and an area under the curve of 0.80.

Conclusion

The Mexican version of the EPDS can be considered for screening depression in puerperal Mexican women whenever cut-off scores of 11/12 and 7/8 in women with less than 4 weeks and within 4 to 13 weeks of postpartum are used, respectively.

     

Postpartum depression and related psychosocial variables in Hong Kong Chinese women: findings from a prospective study

Research on predictors of postpartum depression (PPD) in Hong Kong (HK) Chinese women is scant. A prospective study with 385 HK Chinese postpartum women was conducted to identify correlations between PPD and demographic variables, and antenatal depression and psychosocial variables, and to determine which of these variables were predictors of PPD. Using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), we classified 19.8% of participants as postnatally depressed. Fifty-six percent of the variance in PPD was explained by social support and stress factors. However, social support factors accounted for only a small percentage of that variance. The major predictors were antenatal depression, postnatal perceived stress, and childcare stress. HK women may benefit from a culturally appropriate intervention focused on reducing stress in the postpartum period.     

Depression in Chronic Pain Patients: Prevalence and Measurement

This study aimed to: (1) determine prevalence of depression in patients referred to specialist pain services using the Structured Clinical Interview (SCID) diagnostic interview, (2) compare results on the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) with the SCID to determine the utility of the BDI-II as a screening tool in this population.
Thirty-six participants were recruited, mainly women, with a mean age = 47.83 years (standard deviation = 12.85 years), who were heterogeneous with regard to their pain. All completed the BDI-II and SCID. The SCID diagnosed 26 (72%) cases of depression. BDI-II scores showed 31 (86%) that reported at least mild depression. Agreement between BDI-II scores over threshold for mild depression and SCID diagnosis were assessed by Cohen's kappa (= 0.6). ROC analysis for BDI-II scores against SCID diagnosis gave a large area under the curve (0.97, 95% confidence interval 0.93 to 1.02), suggesting BDI-II is an excellent screen for this population, although the curve was unusual in that sensitivity was high even when the false positive rate was zero. ROC analysis suggested 22 or above as an optimum cut-off score for depression on the BDI-II—higher than for a general population sample.
It has been suggested that the BDI overestimates incidence of depression in pain patients, but this study confirmed through diagnostic interview the very high incidence of depression in this population. It is therefore questionable whether there is value in screening referrals for depression. When using BDI-II for screening, audit or evaluation purposes with a pain clinic population, we suggest a cut-off of 22 or above.     

The association between depressive symptoms and social support in Taiwanese women during the month

The purpose of the study was to explore the association between depressive symptoms and social support in Taiwanese women doing the month. A correlational survey design using the Postpartum Social Support Questionnaire (PSSQ) and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) to measure social support and postnatal depressive symptomatology was employed. Two hundred and forty postpartum women receiving care in two teaching hospitals in Taipei, Taiwan, aged between 20 and 35, with no peri-natal complications or previous psychiatric history, experiencing a normal spontaneous delivery of one full term healthy baby, were selected. Each was mailed the PSSQ and the EPDS as well as a short, semi-structured self-report questionnaire requesting demographic details and subjective data relating to the experience of doing the month and depressive symptoms during the fourth week following birth. One hundred and eighty six women (78%) returned questionnaires. Taiwanese postpartum women were less depressed when they stayed in their parents' home and had their own mothers take care of them. It was found that the greater the level of postpartum social support received by the women doing the month, the lower the risk of postnatal depressive symptoms experienced. Almost a quarter (24%) of the variance of the symptoms was attributed to dissatisfaction with parents' instrumental support and unwanted emotional support from parents-in-law. It is concluded that the ritual of doing the month provides valuable social support and may help to prevent postnatal depression in Taiwanese women.     

Screening performance of the postpartum depression screening scale--Spanish version.

The purpose Puerto Rican/Caribbean (n = 68), Mexican (n = 64), and Central/South American (n = 18). For the three subgroups, the PDSS total score alpha reliabilities were .96, .95, and .95, respectively. Based on the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, a cutoff score of 60 is recommended as a positive screen for combined major and minor depression. This cutoff point obtained a sensitivity of 84% and specificity of 84%. When compared to the original English version of the PDSS, the psychometrics for the Spanish version were slightly lower but well within the acceptable range.     

护理干预对初产妇产后抑郁症的影响

目的探讨护理干预对预防初产妇产后抑郁的效果。方法将2008年8月至2009年8月产前检查及正常足月分娩的初产妇350例,随机分成干预组200例和对照组150例,对照组接受常规护理,干预组在常规护理的基础上,接受系统的护理干预。观察两组孕妇产后6周产后抑郁量表(EPDS)评分和产后抑郁症的发生率。结果干预组与对照组在孕28周基础EPDS评分比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),产后6周两组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);产后6周干预组产后抑郁症的发生率为6.50%(13/200),对照组产后抑郁症的发生率为14.67%(22/150),两组差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论对初产妇进行孕产期的护理干预,能有效地减轻其抑郁情绪,降低产后抑郁症的发生。     

产前/后社区综合护理对预防产后抑郁症的效果分析

目的探讨妇保人员在社区妇保工作中,运用心理干预等综合护理方法,对预防产妇产后抑郁发生的作用。方法选取2009年5月至2010年5月在本院保健科管辖的两个社区分娩的200例产妇作为研究对象:实验组(100例),实施综合、全面的护理干预,同时进行心理护理;对照组(100例),进行常规护理。应用汉密顿抑郁量表(HAMD)和产后抑郁量表(EPDS)法,分别于产前、产后对两组产妇的焦虑、抑郁情绪进行评分。结果产妇产前HAMD评分、产后EPDS评分以及随访结果表明,综合护理的产妇抑郁症发生率和对照组相比明显降低(P0.05)。结论临床综合护理对预防以及提高产后抑郁症疗效有较好的效果。     

Postpartum depression as profiled through the depression screening scale

PURPOSE: To describe in greater depth the profiles of the dimensions of the Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS), with a focus on those women identified with postpartum depression (PPD), and to provide a discussion of the implications for early detection in the community. METHOD AND DESIGN: Subanalysis of data from 150 new mothers who completed the PDSS and had a DSM-IV diagnostic interview conducted by a nurse psychotherapist. Data analysis focused on exploring the profiles of women who were diagnosed with PPD as well as those who were not. RESULTS: The respondents within the major PPD group averaged scores twice as high as those in the nondepressed group, and described more profound emotional responses to their maternal role transitions. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: PPD should be conceptualized as occurring in a continuum, with symptoms worsening over time for some women. Nurses working across healthcare settings can use the PDSS for identifying women with PPD. All healthcare providers who are in contact with postpartum women should be open to discussing these women's emotional needs, and should assess women on an ongoing basis. Using all opportunities to listen to women's unique stories that unfold during the postpartum period can help identify women who require treatment for this curable illness.     

Are you often sad and depressed? Brief measures to identify women at risk for depression in pregnancy

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to test brief depression screening measures as an initial step to identify women at risk for depression in pregnancy. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Psychometric theory and a prospective correlational research design with a convenience sample of 130 low-income women guided this study. Measurements included (a) single-item depression-screening measures, (b) a two-item depression screening measure, (c) the Brief Depression Screen (BDS), and (d) the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), a standardized measure of self-reported depression that has been used widely in pregnancy. RESULTS: Depressive symptoms in pregnancy among these low-income women were 27% (35/128) as determined by a score of 16 or greater on the BDI-II. The two-item depression screening measure, "Are you often sad and depressed?" and "Have you had a loss of pleasurable activities?" had a sensitivity of 91% and a specificity of 52%, whereas the BDS measure had sensitivity of 53% and specificity of 80%. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Asking the two-item screening questions could be an essential first step in determining which women should receive further evaluation and interventions aimed at treating depression during pregnancy.     

Comparing validity of Edinburgh scale and SRQ20 in screening for post-partum depression

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is the instrument most used worldwide for screening of Post-Partum Depression (PPD). The SRQ20 questionnaire has been largely used for screening of minor psychiatric disorders. This study aimed to compare the accuracy of the two instruments in screening for PPD. At the third-month follow-up home visit to infants of the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort, Southern Brazil, a sub-sample of 378 mothers was selected. Among other questions, EPDS and SRQ20 were applied by trained fieldworkers. Up to 15 days later, a mental health professional re-interviewed the mother (the gold standard interview). Sensitivity and specificity of each cutoff point were calculated for EPDS and SRQ20 and the results were plotted at a ROC curve. The areas under both curves were compared. Highest sensitivity and specificity cutoff were observed for EPDS ≥ 10 (sensitivity 82.7%, 95%CI 74.0 – 89.4; specificity 65.3%, 95%CI 59.4 – 71.0) and for SRQ20 ≥ 6 (sensitivity 70.5%, 95%CI 60.8 – 79.0%; specificity 75.5%, 95%CI 70.0 – 80.5%). Shape of ROC curves and areas under both curves were virtually identical (respectively, 0.8401 ± 0.02 for EPDS and 0.8402 ± 0.02 for SRQ20; p = 0.9). In conclusion SRQ20 showed to be as valid as EPDS as a screening tool for PPD at third month after delivery.     

母婴分离产妇发生产后抑郁现状调查

目的 了解母婴分离产妇住院期间产后抑郁发生的基本情况,探讨导致母婴分离产妇发生产后抑郁的影响因素.方法 对144例健康儿母婴同室(母婴同室组)和117例疾患儿母婴分离(分离组)初产妇应用爱丁堡产后抑郁量表(EPDS)、简易应对方式问卷(SCSQ)、社会支持评定量表(SSRS)以及自行设计一般情况调查表进行问卷调查.结果 母婴分离产妇住院期间产后抑郁的检出率较母婴同室产妇高(P<0.05);母婴分离产妇发生产后抑郁社会支持较差,其中以缺乏社会客观支持为主(P<0.01);照顾喂养新生儿信心缺乏(P<0.05)、产妇认为自身与新生儿患病有关(P<0.01) 及生女婴(P<0.05)是产后抑郁的诱发因素.结论 对母婴分离产妇要给予更多关注,引导其客观认识新生儿的病因,帮助其树立新生儿喂养信心,同时教育产妇和家人要转变重男轻女的思想.     

腰-硬联合阻滞分娩镇痛对产后抑郁的影响

目的探讨腰-硬联合阻滞分娩镇痛对产后抑郁的影响。方法选择徐州医学院附属医院产科300例足月初产孕妇,分为常规分娩组(A组,150例)和无痛分娩组(C组,150例),使用爱丁堡产后抑郁量表(EPDS)对两组患者于孕37周(T0)、分娩后3天(T1),分娩后42天(T2)进行测评。比较两组患者T0、T1、T2时的EPDS评分和产后抑郁的发生率。结果排除A组24例和C组19例改行剖宫产术的产妇,两组产妇在T0时的EPDS评分比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。T1时的EPDS评分,C组(7.27±2.88)明显低于A组(8.18±3.04),差异有统计学意义(P0.05);T2时的EPDS评分,C组(8.32±2.63)亦明显低于A组(9.13±2.91),差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。T1时产后抑郁发生率C组(13.7%)明显低于A组(23.8%),差异有统计学意义(P0.05),T2时产后抑郁发生率C组(15.0%)亦明显低于A组(27.9%),差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论与常规分娩产妇比较,使用腰-硬联合阻滞无痛分娩的产妇产后EPDS评分低,产后抑郁的发生率降低。     

综合干预措施对产妇抑郁的影响评价

目的探讨产妇抑郁的发生及其影响因素,观察综合干预措施对降低产后抑郁发生率的作用。方法将1210例孕妇随机分为干预组(实施干预措施)和对照组,每组各605例,采用医院焦虑-抑郁自评量表、艾迪产后抑郁量表进行产前产后跟踪调查至,并进行对比分析。结果两组产前医院焦虑-抑郁情绪自评量表评定焦虑抑郁发生率无显著性差异(P>0.05);有焦虑情绪者产后抑郁发生率为54.10%,有抑郁情绪者产后抑郁发生率为56.36%,有焦虑-抑郁情绪者产后抑郁发生率成倍增加;干预组产后抑郁发生率为5.12%,对照组产后抑郁发生率为14.22%,两组差异有极显著性(P<0.01)。结论孕期焦虑-抑郁情绪是发生产后抑郁的最主要因素,综合干预措施能够显著降低产后抑郁的发生率。提示,加强对孕产妇及其家属进行产前、产时、产后宣教,能有效预防产后抑郁的发生。     

A cross-cultural analysis of the use of the Edinburgh Post-Natal Depression Scale (EPDS) in health visiting practice

This report describes a project that developed and undertook initial validation of a Punjabi version of the Edinburgh Post-Natal Depression Scale (EPDS). A multi-disciplinary and multi-ethnic project team translated the EPDS from English to Punjabi. A pilot study indicated a high level of correlation between the two scales opening the way for a larger study in which a total of 98 bi-lingual women completed both the English and Punjabi version of the scale 6-8 weeks after delivery of their child. Of these a further 52 completed the scales on a second occasion, 16-18 weeks post-partum. A small sub-group (n = 15) was subject to independent clinical assessment by a community psychiatric nurse (CPN) to determine their mental state, enabling the outcome of the assessment to be compared with the EPDS score. The scores of the English and Punjabi versions of the scale were analysed using Spearman correlation coefficient and the Bland Altman test. A high correlation was found between overall scores and most individual items on the scale. Furthermore, the independent assessment of mental health state indicated that a number of those women who scored 12 or above on the EPDS scale (the cut-off point for determining risk of post-natal depression (PND)) were diagnosed as having a post-natal depressive disorder by the CPN assessing them independently. Whilst the results to date are promising there is a need for further work to determine the validity, sensitivity and specificity of the Punjabi EPDS tool against international classification of depressive disorders and to establish optimal cut-off scores when using the Punjabi version of the EPDS.