超声心动图评价房间隔缺损患者左心室收缩功能

用超声心动图检测２８例继发孔型房间隔缺损（ＡＳＤ）患者及４０例正常人左心室收缩功能（ＬＶＳＦ）。结果表明：ＡＳＤ患者左室射血分值（ＬＶＥＦ）、短轴缩短分数（ＬＶＦＳ）、每搏量（ＳＶ）、心输出量（ＣＯ）、主动脉瓣口血流速度（ＡＶ）、速度时间积分（ＡＶＩ）均较正常人明显降低（Ｐ＜０．００１～０．０５），左室射血前期（ＬＰＥＰ）延长（Ｐ＜０．０１）、射血时间（ＬＶＥＴ）缩短（Ｐ＜０．０５）、ＬＰＥＰ／ＬＶＥＴ增大（Ｐ＜０．０１），且ＬＶＥＦ、ＬＶＦＳ、ＳＶ、ＣＯ、ＡＶ、ＡＶＩ与肺／体循环量比值（Ｑｐ／Ｑｓ）呈中度负相关（ｒ＝－０．３９～－０．７８，Ｐ＜０．０５）。结论认为：ＡＳＤ患者ＬＶＳＦ存在一定程度的减退，并推测其机理可能与ＡＳＤ患者因右室容量超荷所致的左室扩张性降低、舒张末容积减小、室间隔运动异常及左室几何形态改变等有关     

脑卒中病损评估量表中的运动功能部分的有效性研究

目的：探讨脑卒中病损评估量表中的运动功能部分（ＳＩＡＳＭ）对脑卒中偏瘫患者进行运动功能评定的有效性和可行性。方法：应用ＳＩＡＳＭ对５３例脑卒中偏瘫患者的运动功能进行评测,并与简式ＦｕｇｌＭｅｙｅｒ运动功能评价法（ＦＭＡ）及Ｂａｒｔｈｅｌ指数评定法（ＢＩ）进行相关分析比较。结果：ＳＩＡＳＭ总分与ＦＭＡ总分显著相关（ｒ＝０．９５４５,Ｐ＜０．００１）,ＳＩＡＳＭ上肢分与ＦＭＡ上肢分显著相关（ｒ＝０．９７７６,Ｐ＜０．００１）,ＳＩＡＳＭ下肢分与ＦＭＡ下肢分显著相关（ｒ＝０．９３２９,Ｐ＜０．００１）,ＳＩＡＳＭ总分、ＳＩＡＳＭ上肢分、ＳＩＡＳＭ下肢分与ＢＩ得分均显著相关（ｒ１＝０．７６９４,ｒ２＝０．６３０１,ｒ３＝０．７５５２,Ｐ＜０．００１）。结论：ＳＩＡＳＭ是有效的,并且简便、实用,能敏感地反映偏瘫患者运动功能的变化,值得在国内推广应用     

二维多普勒超声对缺血性心肌病左室重构变化的研究

目的对缺血性心肌病（ＩＣＭ）患者的左室重构（ＬＶＲ）病理生理变化进行分析研究。方法应用ＨＰ ７７０２０ＡＣ型彩色多普勒血流显像仪（探头频率３．５ＭＨｚ）分别对５６例ＩＣＭ患者和５０例正常对照组进行分析评价。结果显示ＩＣＭ组的各项指标与正常组比较有显著性差异（Ｐ＜０．０１～０．００１）。ＩＣＭ组的ＬＶＥＤｄ、ＥＤＶ、ＥＳＶ、ＥＳＳ、ＰＶＡ、ＬＡＴ、ＬＡＦ显著增大，ＥＦ、ＣＯ、ＬＶＳＣＩ、ＭＶＣＦ、ＰＶＥ、ＰＦＲ及ＰＶＡ／ＰＶＥ显著降低（Ｐ＜０．０１～０．００１）。结论认为ＩＣＭ病人ＬＶＲ的主要病因与心肌缺血引起的梗塞区膨展、左室扩张、容量负荷及室壁应力的增加有关，而ＥＳＶ、ＥＤＶ及ＥＦ可作为了解ＩＣＭ远期预后的最佳指标     

高血压病心室活动同步性和收缩功能的核素心室造影研究

应用计算机－核素心室造影（ＥＲＮＡ）对１２０例各期高血压患者和２０例正常人进行左室收缩功能（ＬＶＳＦ）参数测定，并通过位相分析得到心室活动同步性（ＶＳＳ）参数心室相角程（ＰＳ）和半高竞（ＦＷＨＭ）。结果表明：高血压病Ⅰ期组ＬＶＳＦ参数在正常或超常水平；Ⅱ期患者与Ⅰ期患者比较，其ＬＶＥＦ和１／３ＥＦ降低（Ｐ＜０．０５）且ＰＳ和ＦＷＨＭ增宽（ＰＭ＜０．０５），提示存在ＶＳＳ损伤；Ⅲ期ＬＶＳＦ各参数均较Ⅰ、Ⅱ期明显降低（Ｐ＜０．０１），ＰＳ和ＦＷＨＭ更增宽（Ｐ＜０．０１）。ＬＶＥＦ与ＰＳ和ＦＷＨＭ呈负相关（ｒ＝－０．５４，－０．５０，Ｐ＜０．０５）。ＰＳ和ＦＷＨＭ增竟是ＶＳＳ损伤表现．计算机－ＥＲＮＡ在高血压病分期诊断、治疗和判断预后上有重要意义。     

声学定量硝酸异山梨醇酯试验预测冠心病患者择期经皮冠脉腔内成形术后左心功能

目的　检验声学定量－ 硝酸异山梨醇酯试验（ ＡＱＩＳＤＮ） 能否在术前预测择期经皮冠脉腔内成形术（ＰＴＣＡ） 后心功能。方法　随机对择期ＰＴＣＡ ３０ 例患者在介入前应用声学定量技术（ ＡＱ） 测定经口吸入硝酸异山梨醇酯（ＩＳＤＮ）２ ．５ ｍ ｇ 之前及吸入后５ ｍｉｎ 的左心功能参数的改变。并与介入后ＡＱ 左心功能测值相对照。结果　介入前吸入ＩＳＤＮ 后５ ｍｉｎ 峰值射血率（ＰＥＲ） 的改变与介入后ＰＥＲ 的改变相关,相关系数ｒ ＝ ０ ．７２（Ｐ ＝ ０ ．００１） ;也与介入后峰值充盈率（ＰＦＲ） 的改变相关,相关系数ｒ ＝ ０ ．５６（ Ｐ ＝ ０ ．００１） 。回归分析介入后ＰＦＲ值,能由介入前ＡＱＩＳＤＮ 的ＰＥＲ、ＰＦＲ 值代入公式推算：ＰＦＲ ＝ ＰＦＲ１ － ０ ．０８ ＋ ０ ．９０ ×（ ＰＥＲ２ － ＰＥＲ１） 。其中ＰＦＲ 为介入后预测值,ＰＥＲ１ 、ＰＦＲ１ 为静息时测值,ＰＥＲ２ 为吸入ＩＳＤＮ 后５ ｍｉｎ 时的测值（ 单位：ＥＤＶ／Ｓ,Ｓｉｇ ＝０ ．００１４） 。把ＡＱＩＳＤＮ 吸入后５ ｍｉｎ 的ＰＥＲ 大于等于吸入前和小于吸入前作为预测介入后心功能改善和恶化的标准,预测结果与实测值对比,本标准对介入后ＥＦ、ＰＦＲ、ＰＥＲ 的     

多普勒超声心动图评价原发性高血压病右心室舒张充盈

观察原发性高血压病时右心室（ＲＶ）舒张充盈是否发生变化，并与左心室（ＬＶ）充盈进行比较。受试者为５１例原发性高血压病患者，５０例血压正常者做为对照组。将脉冲多普勒取样容积置于二、三尖瓣瓣环处。结果显示，与对照组相比较，高血压组ＲＶ之Ｅ峰（４６±７ｖｓ４１±６，Ｐ值＜０．０５），１／２ＦＦ（６１±１０ｖｓ５５±７，Ｐ值＜０．０１）及１／３ＦＦ（５２±１２ｖｓ４４±８，Ｐ值＜０．０１）减低；而Ａ／Ｅ比值（０．８±０．２ｖｓ１．０±０．４，Ｐ值＜０．０５）和ＡＦＦ（２４±９ｖｓ３９±１４，Ｐ值＜０．０１）则升高，ＬＶ亦同。ＬＶ、ＲＶ充盈参数在高血压组（ｒ＝０．５９～０．８７，Ｐ＜０．０１）和正常对照组（ｒ＝０．６５～０．９０，Ｐ＜值０．０１）相关性较好，然心室充盈参数与ＬＶ重量、ＬＶ后壁厚度、ＲＶ前壁厚度及血压无显著相关。故在原发性高血压病时，ＲＶ充盈异常不受ＬＶ重量和血压的影响，但与ＬＶ充盈异常密切相关。     

超声心动图对室壁瘤切除术后左心功能的初步研究

１１例患者于室壁瘤切除术前后进行了超声心动图检查。其中男１０例，女１例，年龄３９至６８岁。心尖部室壁瘤９例，下后壁室壁瘤２例。１０例患者室壁瘤切除术（ＬＶＡ）的同时进行了ＣＡＢＧ。ＥＤＶ、ＥＤＶＩ、ＥＳＶ、ＥＳＶＩ和ＳＶ于ＬＶＡ后明显减少（Ｐ＜０．０５－０．００１），ＨＲ增加，ＥＦ、ＣＯ和ＣＩ无明显变化。二尖瓣血流频谱显示所有患者舒张功能类型和Ｅ峰流速、Ｅ峰压差、Ａ峰流速、Ａ峰压差及ＩＶＲＴ手术前后均没有明显改变（Ｐ＞０．０５）。所以，ＬＶＡ可明显减低室壁瘤患者的ＥＤＶ、ＥＤＶＩ、ＥＳＶ、ＥＳＶＩ，使上述指标趋于正常；ＳＶ可出现下降但ＥＦ、ＣＯ和ＣＩ无变化。二尖瓣血流频谱的变化显示ＬＶＡ对左室舒张功能无明显影响。上述结论还有待进一步证实。     

心肌肥厚对冠脉循环影响的超声研究

目的： 探讨心肌肥厚患者冠脉循环血流动力学变化的特点。方法： 应用多平面经食管超声心动图（ＴＥＥ） 技术探测３０ 例心肌肥厚患者的冠状窦血流动力学改变, 并与１０ 例正常对照进行对比。结果： 所有受检者均可记录到满意的冠状窦血流频谱 （１００％ ）。心肌肥厚组收缩压、左室重量指数 （ＬＶＭ Ｉ）、冠状窦收缩期血流流速积分 （ＶＴＩ－Ｓ）、净前向血流流速积分 （ＶＴＩｎｅｔ） 和前向血流 （ＣＳＦ） 及其直径明显高于正常组 （Ｐ 均＜ ０．０５）, 余各项参数无显著性差异; 与正常组相比, 心肌肥厚患者有症状组收缩压、舒张压、ＬＶＭ Ｉ、ＶＴＩｎｅｔ 及冠状窦直径明显增加 （Ｐ＜ ０．０５～０．００１）; 无症状组ＬＶＭ Ｉ、收缩压、舒张期血流峰值 （Ｄ）、ＶＴＩ－Ｓ、舒张期血流流速积分 （ＶＴＩ－Ｄ）、ＶＴＩｎｅｔ、ＣＳＦ 亦明显增加 （Ｐ＜ ０．０５～０．００１）; 但有症状组Ｄ、ＶＴＩ－Ｄ、ＣＳＦ 低于无症状组 （Ｐ 均＜ ０．０５）。结论： 心肌肥厚患者冠状窦前向血流增加, 但有症状组冠状窦前向血流低于无症状组, ＴＥＥ 探测冠状窦血流以评价心肌肥厚患者冠脉循环的改变具有较高的临床应用价值。     

双工超声显像测定室间隔缺损体,肺循环血流量

采用双工超声显像技术测定了２５例先天性室间隔缺损（ＶＳＤ）患者与１２例正常人的右室每搏量（ＲＶＳＶ）与左室每搏量（ＬＶＳＶ），并将手术直视下测得的ＶＳＤ大小与ＲＶＳＶ／ＬＶＳＶ进行了相关性分析．结果表明，正常人ＬＶＳＶ与ＲＶＳＶ几乎相等（Ｐ＞０．０５）。ＶＳＤ患者ＲＶＳＶ明显高于ＬＶＳＶ（Ｐ＜０．００１）；ＶＳＤ患者与正常人相比，ＬＶＳＶ无显著性差异（Ｐ＞０．０５），ＲＶＳＶ明显增加（Ｐ＜０．００１）；ＲＶＳＶ／ＬＶＳＶ亦明显增加（Ｐ＜０．００１）．手术测得的ＶＳＤ大小与ＲＶＳＶ／ＬＶＳＶ显著正相关（ｒ＝０．９１）。因此，双工超声显像能准确测定正常人与ＶＳＤ患者的ＲＶＳＶ与ＬＶＳＶ．ＶＳＤ大小对ＲＶＳＶ／ＬＶＳＶ有明显影响。反之ＲＶＳＶ／ＬＶＳＶ对判断ＶＳＤ大小亦有一定帮助．     

心率变异、心室晚电位和Q-T离散度预测急性心肌梗死预后的探讨

目的 了解心率变异（ＨＲＶ）、Ｑ－Ｔ离散度（Ｑ－Ｔｄ）和心室晚电位（ＶＬＰ）在预测急性心肌梗死９ＡＭＩ）预后的价值。方法 ４０例ＡＭＩ患者ＨＲＶ（ＳＤＮＮ）、Ｑ－Ｔ、ＶＬＰ测定,与４０例正常人进行对比分析。结果人ＡＭＩ组ＳＤＮＮ与对照组比较明显减低（Ｐ〈０．００１）,Ｑ－Ｔｄ明显延长（Ｐ〈０．００１）,ＶＬＰ阳性率明显增高（Ｐ〈０．０１）。梗死患者室性心律失常事件组与非事件组ＨＲＶ（ＳＤＮＮ）、Ｑ     

Determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum using immunological inhibition of creatine kinase M subunit activity. Activity kinetics and diagnostic significance in myocardial infarction.

This is a new method for the determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum. The method uses direct activity measurement of creatine kinase B subunit activity after blocking of CK-M subunit activity by inhibiting antibodies. The test takes no longer than 15 min. The method yields an intra-serial C.V. of 2.0-12.9%, and a C.V. from day to day of 5.5%. The detection limit is 3.4 U/l creatine kinase MB. In the 95 cases with proven myocardial infarction several types of creatine kinase MB activity kinetics could be determined. The percentage of creatine kinase MB of peak CK-total is 6-25%, with a mean of 11.1%. The amount of creatine kinase MB with respect to total CK activity after reinfarction is higher than the amount after initial infarction.     

俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者氧合的影响

目的 探讨俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张术(RM)治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)患者的治疗作用.方法 从海拔2260m的地区医院筛选RM治疗无效的41例ARDS患者[平均氧合指数( PaO2/FiO2)较RM前升高＜20％视为RM无效],依不同病因分为肺内源性ARDS组(ARDSp组)和肺外源性ARDS组(ARDSexp组),每组再按信封法随机分为俯卧位组和仰卧位组,即ARDSp俯卧位组(11例)、ARDSp仰卧位组(9例)、ARDSexp俯卧位组(10例)、ARDSexp仰卧位组(11例).在通气前及通气1、2、3、4h监测动脉血氧分压( PaO2)、PaO2/FiO2、静态顺应性(Cst)、气道阻力(Raw)的变化.结果 通气lh时,ARDSexp俯卧位组PaO2/FiO2( mm Hg,l mm Hg=0.133 kPa)即较通气前显著升高(157.4±40.6比129.3±48.7,P＜0.05),并随通气时间延长呈持续增高趋势,4h达峰值(219.1 ±41.1);且ARDSexp俯卧位组通气3h内PaO2/FiO2较其他3组显著增高,另3组间则差异无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组、ARDSexp俯卧位组通气4h时PaO2/FiO2均较相应仰卧位组显著增高(208.8±39.7比127.4±47.1,219.1±41.1比124.9±50.8,均P＜0.05).4组通气前后Cst无显著改变,各组间差异也无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组通气4h时Raw(cmH2O·L-1·s-1)较通气前显著降低(6.8±1.7比10.7±1.8,P＜0.05),且明显低于其他3组;其他3组各时间点Raw组内及组间比较差异均无统计学意义.结论 俯卧位通气作为ARDS机械通气重要策略之一,可以改善RM无效高原ARDS患者的氧合,为抢救患者赢得宝贵的时间.     

Digital imaging among medical facilities

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) in the USA operates a network of 172 medical centres which all utilize a hospital information system (HIS) which has been developed and is currently maintained by the VA. During the past several years, an image management and communication module has been developed, installed and clinically utilized at the Washington DC and Maryland VA Medical Centres. This image management and communication system, referred to as the decentralized hospital computer program (DHCP) imaging system, is fully integrated with a commercial picture archiving and communication system (PACS). The system is utilized to capture, archive, and display all images generated within the hospital including radiology, nuclear medicine, pathology, endoscopy, bronchoscopy, and dermatology, intraoperative photographs, ECG data, and a limited number of paper documents. The ultimate goal of the project is to have all patient text and image data available at any clinical workstation to any authorized user anywhere within the network of medical centres. Clinical requirements for an imaging workstation include ease of use, rapid and reliable access to the complete set of patient information, and images which are of acceptable quality to meet the requirements of the user and the subspecialty. Patient confidentiality and data security must be safeguarded at all times. Integration of the images with the remainder of the patient's database was found to be critical to the success of the project. The experience at the Washington and Maryland facilities suggests that an imaging system that is successfully integrated with a hospital information system can provide substantial clinical and economic benefits both within and among medical centres. Clinical acceptance and utilization of the system has been excellent, particularly in diagnostic radiology where DHCP Imaging has been interfaced to a commercial PAC system. Based upon this initial experience, the VA has begun to deploy the system throughout its large network of medical centres.     

Myocardial elastography at both high temporal and spatial resolution for the detection of infarcts

Myocardial elastography is a novel method for noninvasively assessing regional myocardial function, with the advantages of high spatial and temporal resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In this paper, in-vivo experiments were performed in anesthetized normal and infarcted mice (one day after left anterior descending coronary artery [LAD] ligation) using a high-resolution (30 MHz) ultrasound system (Vevo 770, VisualSonics Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada). Radiofrequency (RF) signals of the left ventricle (LV) in longitudinal (long-axis) view and the associated electrocardiogram (ECG) were simultaneously acquired. Using a retrospective ECG gating technique, 2-D full field-of-view RF frames were acquired at an extremely high frame rate (8 kHz) that resulted in high-quality incremental displacement and strain estimation of the myocardium. The incremental results were further accumulated to obtain the cumulative displacements and strains. Two-dimensional and M-mode displacement images and strain images (elastograms), as well as displacement and strain profiles as a function of time, were compared between normal and infarcted mice. Incremental results clearly depicted cardiac events including LV contraction, LV relaxation and isovolumetric phases in both normal and infarcted mice, and also evidently indicated reduced motion and deformation in the infarcted myocardium. The elastograms indicated that the infarcted regions underwent thinning during systole rather than thickening, as in the normal case. The cumulative elastograms were found to have higher elastographic SNR (SNR(e)) than the incremental elastograms (e.g., 10.6 vs. 4.7 in a normal myocardium, and 6.0 vs. 2.4 in an infarcted myocardium). Finally, preliminary statistical results from nine normal (m = 9) and seven infarcted (n = 7) mice indicated the capability of the cumulative strain in differentiating infracted from normal myocardia. In conclusion, myocardial elastography could provide regional strain information at simultaneously high temporal (>/=0.125 ms) and spatial ( approximately 55 microm) resolution as well as high precision ( approximately 0.05 microm displacement). This technique was thus capable of accurately characterizing normal myocardial function throughout an entire cardiac cycle, at the same high resolution, and detecting and localizing myocardial infarction in vivo.     

Guns and Knives in New Mexico: Patterns of Penetrating Trauma, 1978–1993

Objective: To identify patterns of nonfatal and fatal penetrating trauma among children and adults in New Mexico using ED and medical examiner data.
Methods: The authors retrospectively sampled in 5-year intervals all victims of penetrating trauma who presented to either the state Level-1 trauma center or the state medical examiner from a 16-year period (1978–1993). Rates of nonfatal and fatal firearm and stabbing injury were compared for children and adults.
Results: Rates of nonfatal injury were similar (firearm, 34.3 per 100,000 person-years; stabbing, 35.1). However, rates of fatal injury were significantly different (firearm, 21.9; stabbing, 2.7; relative risk: 8.2; 95% confidence interval: 5.4, 12.5). From 1978 to 1993, nonfatal injury rates increased for children (p = 0.0043) and adults (p < 0.0001), while fatal penetrating injury remained constant. The increase in nonfatal injury in children resulted from increased firearm injury rates. In adults, both stabbing and firearm nonfatal injury rates increased.
Conclusions: Nonfatal injury data suggest that nonfatal violence has increased; fatal injury data suggest that violent death rates have remained constant. Injury patterns vary by age, mechanism of trauma, and data source. These results suggest that ED and medical examiner data differ and that both are needed to guide injury prevention programs.     

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Morphine

Morphine, the most widely used mu-opioid analgesic for acute and chronic pain, is the standard against which new analgesics are measured. A thorough understanding of the pharmacokinetics of morphine is required in order to safely and effectively use this analgesic in a wide variety of patients with different levels of organ function. A MEDLINE search was conducted to identify literature published between 1966 and January 2002 relevant to the pharmacokinetics of morphine. These publications were reviewed and the literature summarized regarding unique and clinically important elements of morphine disposition relative to its parenteral administration (including intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, epidural and intrathecal administration), absorption profile (immediate release, controlled release, and sublingual/buccal, and rectal administration), distribution, and its metabolism/ excretion. Special populations, including infants, elderly, and those with renal/liver failure, have a unique morphine pharmacokinetic profile that must be taken into account in order to maximize analgesic efficacy and reduce the risk of adverse events.     

手转胎头术失败的原因与分娩结局临床分析

目的 探讨手转胎头术失败的原因与分娩结局.方法 选择2008年1月至2010年12月于我院住院分娩的持续性枕横位、枕后位产妇198例,根据行手转胎头术后结果分为成功组126例、失败组72例.比较两组分娩结局,对比分析失败原因.结果 失败组胎儿体质量≥3500 g的发生率[76.4％(55/72)]明显高于成功组[31.7％(40/126)],差异有统计学意义(x2=30.177,P=0.001)、失败组宫缩乏力发生率[58.3％(42/72)]高于成功组[38.1％ (48/126)],差异有统计学意义(x2=7.569,P=0.006)、失败组骨盆临界或轻度狭窄发生率[38.9％ (28/72)]高于成功组[23.8％(30/126)],差异有统计学意义(x2 =5.030,P=0.002)、失败组手转胎头时机不当(宫口开大＜6 cm、胎头位于坐骨棘上及宫口开大8～10 cm、胎头位于坐骨棘下≥2 cm)发生率[61.1％(44/72)]高于成功组[38.9％(49/126)],差异有统计学意义(x2=9.084,P=0.003).失败组母儿并发症(产后出血、产褥病率、胎儿窘迫、新生儿窒息)发生率高于成功组(x2 =9.586,P=0.002、x2=9.334,P=0.002、x2=5.910,P=0.015、x2=5.240,P=0.022)、失败组剖宫产发生率[72.2％(52/72)]明显高于成功组[34.1 ％(43/126),x2=26.641,P=0.001)].结论 手转胎头术能使难产变顺产,降低剖宫产率,减少母儿并发症,但须积极预防、处理导致手转胎头术失败的原因,对矫正失败后继续矫正及试产应慎重.     

Evidence-Based Pain Management and Palliative Care in Issue Four for 2009 of The Cochrane Library

ABSTRACT

The Cochrane Library of Systematic Reviews is published quarterly. Issue 4 for 2009 contains 4027 complete reviews, 1906 protocols for reviews in production, and 11447 one-page summaries of systematic reviews published in the general medical literature. In addition, there are citations of 600,000 randomized controlled trials, and 12,200 cited papers in the Cochrane methodology register. The health technology assessment database contains over 7500 citations. This edition of the Library contains 90 new reviews, of which 19 have potential relevance for practitioners in pain and palliative medicine.