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??The total parenteral nutrition??TPN?? or supplemental PN??SPN?? are necessary and safe for patients with contraindications of enteral nutrition??EN?? or patients with EN failing to reach caloric targets. But the PN start time is controversial and the related research findings are conflicting. In terms of current research??in low-risk patients PN can be delayed for 7 days. In high-risk patients the PN starting 3 days after admissicn is reasonable. At the same time??daily nutritional assessment and metabolic status monitoring are important.     

New approaches to parenteral nutrition in infants and children

Parenteral nutrition (PN) has become a mainstay in the treatment of children with intestinal failure or conditions that preclude enteral feeding. Estimated energy and protein requirements can usually be met, unless the patient is fluid volume restricted or glucose intolerant. Although PN is generally well tolerated, in some patients it is still associated with a significant morbidity. Complications include metabolic disturbances, venous access device infection or dysfunction, venous thrombosis and cholestatic liver disease. Patients need to be carefully monitored for evidence of micronutrient deficiencies or excesses. There is a close relationship between line sepsis and thrombosis. Strict aseptic technique is the key to preventing line infections. Recurrent sepsis and thrombosis may eventually lead to loss of venous access and may jeopardize the long-term delivery of PN. Chronic cholestatic liver disease is common in premature infants with gastrointestinal problems, recurrent sepsis and lack of enteral feeding. The aetiology is multifactorial. Early enteral feeding is the most effective strategy in preventing PN-associated liver disease. New specialized nutrient solutions and lipid emulsions promise improved clinical outcomes. However, long-term clinical data are not yet available in children. In recent years, nutrition support teams have improved clinical and economic outcomes by encouraging the appropriate use and monitoring of PN therapy. In patients with intestinal failure, parent-administered home PN has become an alternative to long-term hospitalization. Apart from a positive effect on the quality of life of patient and family, home PN is cost-effective and reduces the risk of nosocomial infections and catheter-related complications.     

Catheter-related complications of total parenteral nutrition in infants

We have reported five complications related to the catheters used for total parenteral nutrition. The only acceptable position for the catheter tip is in the superior vena cava near the junction of the right atrium. Rigid aseptic technique, careful nursing skills and repeated radiographic and clinical examination of the patient can reduce these catheter-related complications.     

两种肠道外营养方法在早产儿中的应用研究

目的 探讨早产儿应用两种肠道外营养(parenteral nutrition,PN)方法的疗效.方法 选择不能耐受完全胃肠道喂养的早产儿42例,随机分为观察组(22例)和对照组(20例).观察组患儿生后24 h内应用氨基酸,自1.0/g(kg·d)开始,每日递增1.0g/(kg·d),直至3.0/g(kg·d);48 h内应用脂肪乳,剂量及添加方法同氨基酸,生后第5天达全静脉营养.对照组患儿生后48 h应用氨基酸,自0.5g/(kg·d)开始,每日递增0.5g/(kg·d),直至3.0g/(kg·d);72 h后应用脂肪乳,剂量及添加方法同氨基酸,生后8～9 d达全静脉营养.两组患儿均监测营养效果,出生72 h内和第10天分别监测血生化指标,观察并发症发生情况.结果 观察组恢复至出生体质量时间、体质量下降幅度、PN时间、过渡到全胃肠道营养时间均较对照组短,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01).并发症发生情况比较两组差异无统计学意义(x2=0.191,P＞0.05).两组患儿在血糖、总胆红素、尿素氮、二氧化碳结合力、总胆固醇等方面比较差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 早产儿可以耐受生后24 h内早期足量的PN.     

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??Parenteral nutrition (PN) is an essential and often life-saving treatment for infants and children who cannot be adequately fed orally or enterally, to prevent or correct malnutrition, and to sustain appropriate growth. PN is more costly and can induce severe complications than oral nutrition or EN. The complications is reduced by a meticulous mornitoring, establishment of a multidisciplinary nutrition support team, avoidance of unbalanced or excessive substrate supplies, strict hygiene measures to reduce catheter infections, and forceful enhancement of enteral feeding where possible to limit the amount and duration of PN.     

Delivery of Vitamin A from parenteral nutrition solutions in neonates

The delivery of Vitamin A from parenteral nutrition may be suboptimal. To investigate this sample solutions were prepared and Vitamins A and E concentrations from the solution bags and the efflux from the lines were measured over a 24 h period. The results show that mean Vitamin A levels in the solution bags declined from a range of 57-66% to 17% of expected over 24 h and at the efflux of the lines from a range of 13-29% to 4% of expected, giving a calculated delivery of 10% of expected. There is no improvement with light protection or an ethylene vinyl acetate system. Mixing the vitamin preparation in lipid showed less decline (from 92 to 70% of expected over 24 h), but the delivery was variable. When vitamins were added to a lipid-dextrose-amino acid solution, there was minimal loss from the solution bag and line with a calculated delivery of 94% of expected. The delivery of Vitamin E from all systems was constant with a mean calculated delivery of 74% of expected. It was concluded that the mixing of multivitamins in dextrose-amino acid-electrolyte solutions results in poor delivery of Vitamin A and this is improved by mixing lipid solution. This is important in preterm infants who are prone to become Vitamin A deficient.     

Carnitine deficiency in premature infants receiving total parenteral nutrition

Carnitine plays a significant role in fatty acid utilization and ketone body production. Its availability is especially important during the immediate postnatal period. To determine whether low birth weight infants who cannot be orally fed are at risk of developing carnitine deficiency, we compared the carnitine blood levels and urinary excretion of 12 premature infants (Group A) receiving total parenteral nutrition (TPN) with those of 8 infants of similar gestational age and birth weight (Group B) who received carnitinecontaining milk formulas.In Group A, serum levels of total and free carnitine fell after 5 days of carnitine-deficient parenteral nutrition, and urinary excretion was significantly reduced. Serum levels and urinary excretion increased after the onset of oral feedings. The control Group B exhibited no significant changes in carnitine blood levels between the first and fifth days of life, but did show a later increase. Children in Group A had lower carnitine blood levels compared to those in Group B on the fifth day of life.These findings suggest that premature infants are not able to synthesize enough carnitine to maintain blood levels, and that carnitine deficiency can occur following TPN. Further investigation of metabolic consequences secondary to deficient carnitine intake in premature infants is necessary before carnitine supplementation should be considered.     

Long-term parenteral nutrition

Intestinal failure (IF) is a term applied when intestinal function becomes insufficient to allow adequate absorption of fluid, electrolytes, or nutrients required for normal growth and survival. The development of parenteral nutrition (PN) as a treatment modality has greatly improved the outcome for children with IF and has contributed to improved outcomes in neonates and children from intensive care settings. Home parenteral nutrition (HPN) is central to the care of patients when IF is expected to last for more than 3–6 months. Normal growth and long-term survival is now expected for most children and young people on HPN when only 10 years ago, the prognosis for survival was poor. Adolescents with IF now successfully transfer to adult services, many of which will have been dependent on PN since early infancy. This article reviews the current indications for PN and the recent advances in PN that have contributed to better outcomes. A guideline on Paediatric Parenteral Nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR) was published in 2010. This has been recently updated (ESPGHAN/ESPEN/ESPR/CSPEN guidelines on pediatric parenteral nutrition, 2018) with up-to-date evidence for health professionals working with infants, children and adolescents receiving PN. This update includes details the use of Taurolock? to prevent central venous catheter (CVC) related sepsis, and the role of new multicomponent lipid emulsions. Recommendations have been given with regard to the use of in-line filtration and photoprotection of PN fluids and advice on energy, fluid, electrolyte, macro-and micronutrient intake has been updated.     

Ten-year experience of home parenteral nutrition in a single centre

Aim: Recent data are scarce on the provision of home parenteral nutrition (HPN) in children from the UK but would help to commission intestinal failure services. Our aim was to describe 10 years of HPN experience in our centre, which serves a population of 650 000 children. Methods: Outcome and complication data were collected retrospectively from hospital records of children receiving HPN from April 2001. Data from other centres were used to compare complications and outcomes in the provision of HPN. Results: Nineteen children (12 females) received 10 213 days (28 years) of HPN. In this group, incidence of blood culture positive sepsis was four episodes/1000 days PN. Two children had early intestinal failure–associated liver disease. Of the 19, seven still receive HPN at our centre, six survived PN, three were transferred to other services while still on HPN and three died. Conclusion: Outcome and complication data for HPN from a single UK regional paediatric centre are similar to larger centres. These data provide recent evidence of the disease burden of HPN, which are important for the commissioning of intestinal failure services.     

Hepatobiliary abnormalities and parenteral nutrition

Hepatobiliary dysfunctions (TPN-HBD) occur during parenteral nutrition. In older children these are usually reversible whereas in newborns and infants these hepatobiliary abnormalities play a significant role in the morbidity. Cholestasis is a commonly occurring TPN-HBD. It correlates directly with the decreasing gestational age, low birth weight and increasing duration of TPN therapy. The pathogenesis of cholestasis of TPN is multifactorial and predisposed by necrotising enterocolitis, sepsis, cardiac failure, shock, and hypotension. Diagnosis is made with exclusion of other causes of direct hyperbilirubinemia. Most TPN-HBD appear within 4 weeks of starting of TPN but severe complications manifest usually after the 16th week. Histologically there is intralobular cholestasis. In few cases there may be severe portal fibrosis followed by development of micronodular biliary cirrhosis. Enteral starvation, defective bile acid carriers, hypercaloric TPN are the major factors responsible for TPN-HBD, including cholestasis. Biliary complications of TPN-HBD are acalculous, cholecystitis, and cholelithiasis. Bile stasis is a major pathological factor for these. If the calories are provided only by glucose or glucose-containing electrolyte solutions it may lead to cholestasis and other TPN-HBD. Even small oral elimentation (continuous or bollous) during TPN, prevent TPN-HBD. Choleretic agents have been useful in the prevention and management of cholestasis and other parenteral nutrition induced hepatobiliary abnormalities.     

Evaluation of standardized versus individualized total parenteral nutrition regime for neonates less than 33 weeks gestation

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the difference in nutrient intakes and biochemical responses in newborn infants <33 weeks gestation who received standardized versus individualized total parenteral nutrition (TPN) regimes. METHOD: Comparison of nutrient intakes and daily biochemical responses in newborn infants <33 weeks gestation who received standardized regime versus those who received individualized TPN regimes from day 2 to day 7 of life. RESULTS: Twenty-seven infants in the standardized TPN group and 31 infants in the individualized TPN group were compared. There were no statistically significant differences (P > 0.05) between the two groups in gestation, birthweight, Clinical Risk Index for Babies scores, daily TPN volume intake and biochemical responses. Infants in the standardized TPN group received less sodium (P < 0.01) and no potassium on day 2 as required, more protein (P < 0.02) every day, and more calcium and phosphate (P < 0.02 from day 4). CONCLUSION: There were no significant clinical and statistical differences in biochemical responses in newborn infants <33 weeks gestation who received standardized versus individualized TPN regimes during the first week of life. The economic cost of TPN provision using standardized TPN formulation was approximately 30% lower.     

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??Parenteral nutrition has become a mainstay in the treatment of critically ill children with intestinal or conditions that preclude enteral feeding. Accurate assessment of nutritional status and energy requirements in critically ill children will help to better implement the strategy of parenteral nutrition. The timing of the optimal parenteral nutrition has not been determined??and at present the supplementary parenteral nutrition tends to be started at a later stage. “All in one” is recommended for parenteral nutrition. Pharmacological nutrients have been recommended in critically ill adult patients with different levels??but more extensive research is still needed in critically ill children.     

Carnitine depletion during total parenteral nutrition despite oral L-carnitine supplementation

Carnitine (CAR) plays an important role in the β-oxidation of fatty acids. Less attention, however, has been paid to CAR compared to other nutrients even in total parenteral nutrition (TPN). To examine CAR metabolism during TPN and the effect of simultaneous oral L-CAR supplementation on CAR levels, the blood CAR level was measured in a 3-year-old boy receiving long-term TPN because of short bowel syndrome. Both the total and acyl CAR in the serum were evaluated under various nutritional conditions including oral supplementation of L-CAR. Low CAR concentrations were observed especially when lipid containing TPN regimens were in place. Oral L-CAR supplementation was not sufficient to restore the low CAR levels in the present index patient even when the dose was increased to 120 mg/kg in accordance with the result of the L-CAR absorption test that revealed poor intestinal absorption of this nutrient. Moreover, a markedly low CAR level was measured during the onset of sepsis in the patient, and the blood CAR was depleted when lipid metabolism was activated by lipid loading or sepsis. To date, the late effects of CAR depletion on child growth have not been well examined. It is recommended that the blood CAR level be maintained at normal levels before any prominent manifestations of the deficiency have developed. The intravenous administration of CAR appears to be necessary to supply a sufficient amount of CAR for patients with severe malabsorption.     

An investigation into the physical stability of a neonatal parenteral nutrition formulation

The physical stability of a neonatal parenteral nutrition formulation has been examined using differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy. In vitro studies indicated that particle size increases occur immediately after mixing the Intralipid emulsion with the amino acid/glucose solution, while simulation of clinical administration indicated that larger droplets were observed at the end of the catheter approximately 1 h after administration commenced. Microscopic observation of adjacent droplets of the two fluids showed reversible aggregation occurring almost immediately. It was concluded that the current method of administering this neonatal emulsion does not prevent droplet coalescence.     

Chylous ascites: total parenteral nutrition as primary therapeutic modality

A female infant with Down syndrome and congenital chylous ascites presented at birth with respiratory distress secondary to marked abdominal distension. Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) and paracentesis were the primary therapeutic modality. On hyperalimentation, however, ascites initially recurred, requiring additional paracenteses to improve respiratory distress. The chylous ascites, lymphopenia and hypoalbuminemia were relieved after 10 weeks of TPN administration. We recommend a long-term course (10 weeks) of TPN before an exploratory laparatomy and possible surgical intervention are considered.     

Randomised controlled trial of acetate in preterm neonates receiving parenteral nutrition

AIMS—To determine whether by partly replacing chloride with acetate in parenteral nutrition, hyperchloraemia, metabolic acidosis, and the subsequent use of interventions such as colloid infusion, alkali treatment, increased assisted ventilation, would be reduced.
METHODS—Fifty eight neonates of less than 32 weeks gestation, receiving parenteral nutrition from days 3 to 10, were given either standard parenteral nutrition or a novel formulation with replacement of any chloride dose > 3 mmol/kg/day as acetate.
RESULTS—Acetate (0 to 14.2 mmol/kg/day) reduced the incidence of hyperchloraemia from 77% to 25%, and caused an increase in base excess from day 5 onwards (mean intergroup difference 3.6 to 9.9 mmol/l), an increased pH (day 8, 7.34 vs 7.26), with an increased pCO₂ (1 kPa). The acetate group received less bicarbonate (median 0 mmol vs 4.8 mmol) and less colloid (41 ml/kg vs 204 ml/kg). There was no difference in any parameter of assisted ventilation.
CONCLUSION—Acetate in neonatal parenteral nutrition reduces metabolic acidosis and hyperchloraemia.

     

The effect of glutamine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition on nutrition and intestinal absorptive function in a rat model

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of short-term (7 days) glycyl-glutamine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition (TPN) on nutrition and intestinal absorptive function in a rat model. Thirty Wistar rats, weighting 140–180 g, were divided into three groups (n=10) randomly. The animals received isonitrogenous and isocaloric TPN solutions for 7 days. The nitrogen was supplied by glycyl-glutamine dipeptide-supplemented amino acid solution (group G), and two standard amino acid solutions (group V, group N), respectively. Body weight, plasma glutamine level, nitrogen balance, total tissue water and intestinal absorptive function, assessed by (15-N)-glycine absorption, were investigated. Body weight decreased in three groups at the end of TPN; there was no significant difference in relative body-weight changes. There was a significant improvement of cumulative nitrogen balance and nitrogen retention in group G compared to other groups (P<0.05). There was no significant difference in intestinal glycine absorption (P>0.05) among the three groups. Total tissue water of left thigh muscle was significantly higher in group V and group N than that in group G (P<0.05). The results indicated that short-term (7 days) TPN supplemented with glycyl-glutamine improved plasma glutamine level and nitrogen balance, decreased water content of muscle, but had no beneficial effect on absorptive function in a rat model.     

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??The incidence of malnutrition in critically ill children is always high??and parenteral nutrition??PN?? support is one of the important way to improve infants’nutrition status. The proper venous access and management is the fundamental assurance to infusion of PN. Properly venous access should be selected according to the concentration??osmotic pressure??pH and duration of parenteral nutrition. Venous accesses consist of peripheral venous access and central venous accesses??and central venous accesses consist of percutaneously inserted central catheter access?? peripherally inserted central catheter access and port. It will reduce complications effectively to choose suitable venous access??handle and manage inserted catheter well.