Differentiation of bacterial and viral community-acquired pneumonia in children

Background: Microbe‐specific diagnosis of pediatric community‐acquired pneumonia (CAP) and the distinction between typical‐bacterial, atypical‐bacterial and viral cases are difficult. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the role of four serum non‐specific inflammatory markers and their combinations, supplemented by chest radiological findings, in the screening of bacterial etiology of pediatric CAP. Methods: Serum procalcitonin (PCT), serum C‐reactive protein (CRP), blood erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and white blood cell (WBC) counts were determined in 101 children with CAP, all confirmed on chest radiograph. Evidence of etiology was achieved in 68 patients (67%) mainly using a serologic test panel including 15 pathogens. Results: For the combination of CRP > 100 mg/L, WBC count > 15 × 10⁹/L, PCT > 1.0 ng/mL and ESR > 65 mm/h, the likelihood ratio for a positive test result (LR+) was 2.7 in the distinction between pneumococcal and viral CAP and 3.9 between atypical and viral CAP. If there was a higher value in one of these four parameters (CRP > 200 mg/L, WBC count > 22 × 10⁹/L, PCT > 18 ng/mL or ESR > 90 mm/h) LR+ changed to ≥3.4, which means a significant increase from pre‐test to post‐test disease probability. An alveolar radiological infiltration was associated with higher values in non‐specific inflammatory markers when compared with interstitial infiltrates, but there were no significant associations between radiological and etiological findings. Conclusions: CRP, WBC count, PCT and ESR or their combinations have a limited role in screening between bacterial and viral pediatric CAP. If all or most of these markers are elevated, bacterial etiology is highly probable, but low values do not rule out bacterial etiology.     

儿童社区获得性肺炎的病原学研究

目的 探讨儿童社区获得性肺炎(CAP)的病原学分布,为临床合理使用抗生素提供依据.方法 2006年4月-2007年3月确诊1 073例CAP患儿,年龄1个月-14岁,入院当天取下呼吸道分泌物送细菌培养,同时采用直接荧光免疫法检测病毒病原,应用荧光定量聚合酶联反应测定肺炎支原体、肺炎衣原体、沙眼衣原体基因片断.用MYCO-Ⅱ试剂盒测定血清肺炎支原体特异性IgM.结果 病原检测阳性者819例(76.33%),细菌培养阳性441例(41.10%),其中肺炎链球菌7.36%,流感嗜血杆菌8.94%,副流感嗜血杆菌3.63%,金黄色葡萄球菌3.36%.表皮葡萄球菌2.33%,大肠埃希菌3.73%,卡他莫拉菌2.89%,肺炎克雷伯杆菌3.17%,阴沟杆菌1.96%,其他菌3.73%.病毒检测阳性247例(23.02%),RSV阳性13.79%,副流感病毒1、3型5.87%,腺病毒1.21%,流感病毒A 0.84%,流感病毒 B 0.74%,副流感病毒2型0.56%.痰检肺炎支原体阳性318例(29.64%),肺炎衣原体阳性63例(5.87%),沙眼衣原体阳性39例(3.63%),混合感染260例(24.23%).未检出病原菌254例(23.67%).结论 南京地区儿童社区获得性肺炎的病原以细菌居首位,肺炎支原体次之.病毒病原是2岁以下婴幼儿社区获得性肺炎的重要病原.     

Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized children based on WHO clinical guidelines

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a major cause of death in developing countries and of morbidity in developed countries. The objective of the study was to define the causative agents among children hospitalized for CAP defined by WHO guidelines and to correlate etiology with clinical severity and surrogate markers. Investigations included an extensive etiological workup. A potential causative agent was detected in 86% of the 99 enrolled patients, with evidence of bacterial (53%), viral (67%), and mixed (33%) infections. Streptococcus pneumoniae was accounted for in 46% of CAP. Dehydration was the only clinical sign associated with bacterial pneumonia. CRP and PCT were significantly higher in bacterial infections. Increasing the number of diagnostic tests identifies potential causes of CAP in up to 86% of children, indicating a high prevalence of viruses and frequent co-infections. The high proportion of pneumococcal infections re-emphasizes the importance of pneumococcal immunization.     

Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in 254 hospitalized children

BACKGROUND: Childhood community-acquired pneumonia is a common illness, but there have been relatively few comprehensive studies of the viral and bacterial etiology in developed countries. The aim of the present investigation was to determine the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized children by several laboratory methods. METHODS: In a 3-year prospective study a nasopharyngeal aspirate for viral studies and acute and convalescent serum samples for viral and bacterial serology were taken from 254 children with symptoms of acute infection and infiltrates compatible with pneumonia in the chest radiograph. The role of 17 microbes was investigated. RESULTS: A potential causative agent was detected in 215 (85%) of the 254 patients. Sixty-two percent of the patients had viral infection, 53% had bacterial infection and 30% had evidence of concomitant viral-bacterial infection. Streptococcus pneumoniae (37%), respiratory syncytial virus (29%) and rhinovirus (24%) were the most common agents associated with community-acquired pneumonia. Only one patient had a positive blood culture (S. pneumoniae) of 125 cultured. A dual viral infection was detected in 35 patients, and a dual bacterial infection was detected in 19 patients. CONCLUSIONS: The possible causative agent of childhood community-acquired pneumonia can be detected in most cases. Further studies are warranted to determine what etiologic investigations would aid in the management of pneumonia. With effective immunization for S. pneumoniae and respiratory syncytial virus infections, more than one-half of the pneumonia cases in this study could have been prevented.     

社区获得性小儿肺炎病原体组成现状及临床探讨

目的了解社区获得性小儿肺炎病原体组成现状,探讨其诊断方法及耐药状况。方法(1)对符合肺炎诊断标准的772例患儿,取患儿气道深部分泌物培养,行药敏试验。(2)应用间接免疫荧光法联检试剂,同时检测四种非典型病原体:肺炎支原体(MP)、嗜肺军团菌(Lp)、肺炎衣原体(Cpn)、Q热立克次氏体。(3)收集双份血清进行抗体(IgM)检测。结果⑴细菌培养460例,检出病原菌194株,其中革兰阳性球菌64株,革兰阴性杆菌130株。检出致病菌排列前4位的分别是大肠埃希菌,溶血链球菌、肺炎链球菌、肺炎克雷伯菌。(2)溶血链球菌、肺炎链球菌对青霉素、红霉素类抗生素耐药率达70%;大肠埃希杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌对泰能、环丙沙星等敏感,对常用抗生素耐药。(3)772例患儿中,非典型病原体感染212例,感染率27.46%,其中MP肺炎125例,占16.19%;Lp感染100例,占12.95%;Cpn感染13例,占1.68%;Q热立克次氏体感染3例,占0.39%。(4)双份血清抗体(IgM)检测59份,血清抗体滴度4倍增高50例。(5)多重感染41例,占5.3%。结论肺炎患儿革兰阴性杆菌感染占优势,病原菌对儿科常用抗生素耐药。四种非典型病原体感染约占昆明地区小儿下呼吸道感染的1/3,其中MP、Lp感染居前两位。     

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??Bacterial pneumonia is the main cause of severe pneumonia in children. It is difficult to collect the samples of children’s respiratory tract infection??especially the acquisition of lower respiratory tract specimens is a challenge for the primary pediatricians??and it also affects the etiological diagnosis of children’s respiratory tract infection. Among children under 5??bacterial pathogens include Streptococcus pneumoniae??Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes. Streptococcus pneumoniae infection is more common in healthy children aged 5 and above. The etiology of bacterial pneumonia in children was reviewed in this paper.     

关注社区获得性肺炎细菌病原的变化

近些年,引起儿童社区获得性肺炎(Community-acquired pneumonia,CAP)的病原发生了一些变化,如肺炎支原体、肺炎衣原体不仅成为学龄儿童CAP的常见病原,而且3岁以下感染者也屡见报告,重症或难治性肺炎支原体肺炎病例在国内许多城市出现,嗜肺军团菌可能是小儿重症CAP的独立病原或混合病原之一的事实也再次为儿科临床所认识;新型病毒如C型鼻病毒、多瘤病毒等引起的感染在国内也已有文献报道;细菌方面,肺炎链球菌性坏死性肺炎(Necrotizing pneumonia)和脓胸增多,社区相关性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌引起的坏死性肺炎并脓毒症病例在国内儿童出现,革兰阴性杆菌引起的婴幼儿CAP增多.     

儿童重症社区获得性肺炎病原体分布及细菌耐药情况分析

目的了解儿童重症社区获得性肺炎(CAP)的病原分布及细菌耐药情况,为临床诊疗提供依据。方法选取2016年住院治疗的522例重症CAP患儿为研究对象。按照年龄分为婴儿组(28 d~,n=402),幼儿组(1岁~,n=73),学龄前期组(3岁~,n=35),学龄期组(≥6岁,n=12);按照发病季节分为春季组(3~5月份,n=120),夏季组(6~8月份,n=93),秋季组(9~11月份,n=105),冬季组(12~2月份,n=204)。采集所有患儿气道深部痰液标本,采用phoenix-100全自动细菌鉴定系统进行菌种鉴定及药敏试验;采用直接免疫荧光法检测呼吸道7种病毒;采用荧光定量PCR技术检测肺炎支原体(MP)和沙眼衣原体(CT)。结果 522例重症CAP患儿中,419例(80.3%)病原体检出阳性,其中混合感染190例(45.3%);共检出病原体681株,包括细菌371株(54.5%),病毒259株(38.0%),真菌12株(1.8%),MP 15株(2.2%),CT 24株(3.5%)。细菌、病毒、MP、真菌感染分别在不同年龄组间分布比率比较差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。病毒感染发生率在不同季节间比较差异有统计学意义(P0.05),且在冬季高发。肺炎链球菌对红霉素、四环素、克林霉素耐药率高达85%以上;金黄色葡萄球菌对青霉素、红霉素、克林霉素的耐药率达50%以上;但两者对万古霉素、利奈唑胺均敏感。流感嗜血杆菌对头孢克洛、头孢呋辛等的耐药率达60%以上,但对头孢噻肟敏感;大肠埃希菌、肺炎克雷伯菌对氨苄西林、头孢噻肟、头孢曲松等的耐药率达60%以上,但对碳青霉烯类抗生素、酶抑制剂复方制剂敏感。结论重症CAP患儿感染主要病原体为细菌,混合感染较普遍,且细菌耐药情况严峻。     

烟台地区儿童社区获得性肺炎细菌学检测及药物敏感性分析

目的 了解烟台地区儿童急性社区获得性肺炎（CAP）的病原菌分布和细菌耐药情况，以指导临床合理用药。方法 无菌操作吸取患儿咽部深处分泌物，采用巧克力培养基、血平板培养基、麦康凯培养基培养，通过ATB法和KB法进行细菌药物敏感试验。结果 送检标本722例，阳性标本319例，总阳性率44．2％。319例阳性标本中，革兰阴性菌株156株，占48．9％；革兰阳性菌株163株，占51．1％。前三位病原菌为肺炎链球菌（占39．5％）、流感嗜血杆菌（占26．1％）、金黄色葡萄球菌（占6．9％）。肺炎链球菌对红霉素、四环素、氯霉素、复方新诺明、青霉素耐药率分别高达98．1％、90．9％、86．4％、88.4％及52.3％。结论 肺炎链球菌及流感嗜血杆菌是烟台地区儿童CAP的主要致病菌，肺炎链球菌耐药现象严重。对儿童CAP的治疗应根据病原菌培养结果合理选择抗生素。     

儿童迁延性社区获得性肺炎和慢性社区获得性肺炎

肺炎的分类到目前为止 ,还没有一个既能包括病理 ,又能反映病原、病情的分类的名称。目前临床分类主要依据病理形态来分的有大叶肺炎、支气管肺炎、间质性肺炎等 ;按病原体分类则有细菌、病毒、胞内菌、霉菌等肺炎 ;按病情分类则有轻症或重症之别 ;按病程分类则有急性、迁延性、慢性之分 ;从发病地点、病原学和抗生素合理使用角度来分 ,近年来将肺炎分为社区获得性肺炎 (CAP) [1,2 ] 和院内获得性肺炎 (hospitalacquiredpneumonia ,HAP) [1,2 ] ;结合病情分类 ,则有急性、慢性、迁延性之分。在社区里 ,非在医院内的、病程长达 1～ 3个月…     

100例重症社区获得性肺炎住院儿童的病毒病原学分析

目的了解重症社区获得性肺炎(CAP)儿童中常见呼吸道病毒的流行特征。方法收集2007年9月至2008年8月诊断为重症CAP的住院患儿鼻咽抽吸物标本100份,采用RT-PCR方法检测呼吸道合胞病毒(RSV)、鼻病毒(HRV)、流感病毒A(IFVA)、流感病毒B(IFVB)、副流感病毒1～3(PIV1～3)、偏肺病毒(hMPV)、冠状病毒NL63(HCoV-NL63)及冠状病毒HKU1(HCoV-HKU1),PCR方法检测腺病毒(ADV)、博卡病毒(HBoV),巢式PCR方法检测多瘤病毒WU(WUPyV)和多瘤病毒KI(KIPyV),并对阳性标本进行基因测序以证实。结果 100份重症CAP住院患儿鼻咽抽吸物标本中病毒总检出例数为82例(82.0%),其中RSV检出率最高,为37.0%,其次为HBoV 25.0%和HRV 18.0%。病毒总检出率在男女之间差异无统计学意义;HBoV阳性检出率女性高于男性,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05),其他病毒检出率男女比较差异无统计学意义。阳性检出率在各年龄组之间差异有统计学意义(χ2=19.676,P<0.01),尤以0～6月龄组检出率最高。病毒总检出率在四季分布差异有统计学意义(χ2=9.729,P=0.021),以秋冬季检出率最高。有2种及以上病毒协同感染率为32.0%,RSV的协同感染率最高,依次是HBoV、HRV、PIV-3。结论病毒感染是重症CAP患儿的重要病因,其中RSV是最常见病毒病原,其次为HBoV和HRV;病毒检出率以0～6月龄组最高;秋冬季病毒总检出率高于其他季节;且病毒协同感染率较高。     

儿童社区获得性肺炎的分类和评估

社区获得性肺炎 (CAP)的分类和评估是CAP治疗的基础 ,应该有所规范 ,但儿童这方面资料有限 ,本文就此专题结合文献谈点看法。1　儿童CAP分类CAP是儿童肺炎的主体 ,因此根据病理学、病原学、临床病程和病情评估等的肺炎分类法同样适用CAP ,而且这种分类主要就是针对CAP而言的[1] 。1 1　按病理学分类　有实质性肺炎和间质性肺炎 ,前者包括叶性肺炎 (含段性、局灶性肺炎 )和支气管肺炎。另有一些肺炎因其特殊性而常常单列 ,如吸入性肺炎、毛细支气管炎等 ,后者在病理学上的本质是细支气管及其周围炎 ,故可列入支气管肺炎范畴。另外 ,…     

儿童社区获得性肺炎的经验治疗

近年来 ,随着社区获得性肺炎 (CAP)病原学的变迁、滥用抗生素、细菌耐药率的上升及免疫缺陷宿主的增加等原因 ,在儿童CAP的诊治方面面临许多新的问题 ,尤其是CAP的经验治疗尚有许多问题急待解决。因为不恰当的经验治疗是导致CAP患儿治疗失败、病情迁延、病死率上升及细菌耐药性增加的重要原因。1　CAP经验治疗需考虑的因素1 1　病原学　目前 5 0 %以上的CAP不能通过快速诊断的方法明确病原体 ,在我国这种情况尤为突出[1] 。儿童肺炎细菌学检查尤其滞后。儿科医生在抗生素初始治疗 ,甚至整个治疗过程当中往往缺少病原学的依据。目前…