Golgi-Dependent Copper Homeostasis Sustains Synaptic Development and Mitochondrial Content

Rare genetic diseases preponderantly affect the nervous system causing neurodegeneration to neurodevelopmental disorders. This is the case for both Menkes and Wilson disease, arising from mutations in ATP7A and ATP7B, respectively. The ATP7A and ATP7B proteins localize to the Golgi and regulate copper homeostasis. We demonstrate genetic and biochemical interactions between ATP7 paralogs with the conserved oligomeric Golgi (COG) complex, a Golgi apparatus vesicular tether. Disruption of Drosophila copper homeostasis by ATP7 tissue-specific transgenic expression caused alterations in epidermis, aminergic, sensory, and motor neurons. Prominent among neuronal phenotypes was a decreased mitochondrial content at synapses, a phenotype that paralleled with alterations of synaptic morphology, transmission, and plasticity. These neuronal and synaptic phenotypes caused by transgenic expression of ATP7 were rescued by downregulation of COG complex subunits. We conclude that the integrity of Golgi-dependent copper homeostasis mechanisms, requiring ATP7 and COG, are necessary to maintain mitochondria functional integrity and localization to synapses.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Menkes and Wilson disease affect copper homeostasis and characteristically afflict the nervous system. However, their molecular neuropathology mechanisms remain mostly unexplored. We demonstrate that copper homeostasis in neurons is maintained by two factors that localize to the Golgi apparatus, ATP7 and the conserved oligomeric Golgi (COG) complex. Disruption of these mechanisms affect mitochondrial function and localization to synapses as well as neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. These findings suggest communication between the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria through homeostatically controlled cellular copper levels and copper-dependent enzymatic activities in both organelles.     

Disturbance of Intracellular Calcium Homeostasis and CaMKII/CREB Signaling is Associated with Learning and Memory Impairments Induced by Chronic Aluminum Exposure

Aluminum-induced neuronal injury has been implicated in various neurodegenerative disorders. However, the underlying mechanism involved in this pathogenesis still remains unknown. Our present findings demonstrated that chronic aluminum exposure resulted in spatial learning impairment and significantly increased intracellular calcium level in the hippocampus of rats. Examination of the associated protein molecules essential for induction and maintenance of long-term potentiation revealed that aluminum exposure could increase the expression level of calmodulin (CaM), but the expression levels of CaM-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), and phosphorylated cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB) were significantly reduced, whereas the total protein levels of CaMKII and CREB did not change in the aluminum-treated hippocampus. Thus, we provide a previously unrecognized mechanism whereby chronic aluminum exposure impairs hippocampal learning and memory, at least in part, through disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis and CaM/CaMKII/CREB signaling pathway.     

Calcium Homeostasis During Magnesium Treatment in Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Objective  Magnesium treatment in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) can result in hypocalcemia; this hypocalcemia increases the risk of delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) and poor outcome. We assessed whether low serum levels of total calcium in patients with SAH treated with magnesium is mediated by parathyroid hormone (PTH) or calcitriol, and whether increased PTH or low serum levels of ionized calcium are associated with an increased risk of DCI and poor outcome. Patients and Methods  We studied 167 patients included in a randomized, placebo controlled trial on magnesium in SAH. Mean serum magnesium during treatment was related to mean serum levels of ionized calcium, PTH and calcitriol with linear regression. Hypocalcemia (Ca²⁺) and high serum PTH were related to the occurrence of DCI by means of the Cox proportional hazards model and to poor outcome by logistic regression. Results  Serum magnesium was inversely related to ionized calcium (B = −0.1; 95% CI −0.12 to −0.06), but not to PTH or calcitriol. Neither hypocalcemia nor high serum PTH was related to DCI. Hypocalcemia did not increased the risk for poor outcome (OR 1.2; 95% CI 0.6–2.3). In the subgroup of patients with known PTH (n = 67), high serum PTH increased the risk for poor outcome (OR 5.4; 1.6–18.9). Conclusions  Magnesium treatment in patients with SAH leads to hypocalcemia without effect on outcome. PTH is related to poor outcome, but this is independent of magnesium therapy.     

Intracellular Calcium Deposition in Brain Following Electrical Stimulation

The effects of electrical stimulation of the cat cerebral cortex have been evaluated by light and electron microscopy following a wide variety of stimulation parameters (QD/ph of 10 – 300 μc/cm²/ph). Platinum or rhodium disc electrode arrays were bilaterally implanted subdurally on the parietal cortex and subjected to 36-hour stimulations (9 hrs./day for 4 days). Prominent among the degenerative changes shown by electron microscopy were dense crystalline inclusions that were identified as calcium hydroxyapatite (CHA) crystals by electron diffraction and energy dispersive X-ray analysis. The appearance of intracellular calcification generally paralleled the onset of other degenerative changes in stimulated tissue, including gliosis, mitochondrial swelling, lipid inclusions, degenerating cells, neuronal loss, and phagocytic activity. A preferential deposition of calcium was noted in mitochondria of several cell types and in postsynaptic dendrites. The mechanism of the apparently electroresponsive calcium deposition is obscure; however, a plausible explanation is that increased cyclic AMP levels, known to occur with electrical stimulation of nervous tissue, result in enhanced calcium plasmalemmal permeability.     

Disruption of Mitochondrial Homeostasis by Phytanic Acid in Cerebellum of Young Rats

Phytanic acid (Phyt) brain concentrations are highly increased in Refsum disease, a peroxisomal disorder clinically characterized by neurological features, cardiac abnormalities, and retinitis pigmentosa. Considering that the pathogenesis of cerebellar ataxia, a common finding in this disease, is still unknown, in the present work we investigated the in vitro effects of Phyt at concentrations similar to those found in affected patients on important parameters of mitochondrial homeostasis in cerebellum from young rats. The respiratory parameters states 3 and 4 and respiratory control ratio (RCR) determined by oxygen consumption, membrane potential (?Ψm), NAD(P)H pool content, and swelling were evaluated in mitochondrial preparations from this cerebral structure. Phyt markedly increased state 4 respiration, whereas state 3 respiration, the RCR, the mitochondrial matrix NAD(P)H content, and ?Ψm were decreased by this fatty acid, being the latter effect partially prevented by N-acetylcysteine. These data indicate that Phyt behaves as an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation and as a metabolic inhibitor disrupting mitochondrial homeostasis in cerebellum. It is proposed that these pathomechanisms may contribute at least in part to the cerebellar alterations found in Refsum disease.     

Glycine Intracerebroventricular Administration Disrupts Mitochondrial Energy Homeostasis in Cerebral Cortex and Striatum of Young Rats

High tissue levels of glycine (GLY) are the biochemical hallmark of nonketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH), an inherited metabolic disease clinically characterized by severe neurological symptoms and brain abnormalities. Considering that the mechanisms underlying the neuropathology of this disease are not fully established, the present work investigated the in vivo effects of intracerebroventricular administration of GLY on important parameters of energy metabolism in cerebral cortex and striatum from young rats. Our results show that GLY reduced CO₂ production using glucose as substrate and inhibited the activities of citrate synthase and isocitrate dehydrogenase in striatum, whereas no alterations of these parameters were verified in cerebral cortex 30 min after GLY injection. We also observed that GLY diminished the activities of complex IV in cerebral cortex and complex I–III in striatum at 30 min and inhibited complex I–III activity in striatum at 24 h after its injection. Furthermore, GLY reduced the activity of total and mitochondrial creatine kinase in both brain structures 30 min and 24 h after its administration. In contrast, the activity of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase was not altered by GLY. Finally, the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine and creatine, and the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 attenuated or fully prevented the inhibitory effects of GLY on creatine kinase and respiratory complexes in cerebral cortex and striatum. Our data indicate that crucial pathways for energy production and intracellular energy transfer are severely compromised by GLY. It is proposed that bioenergetic impairment induced by GLY in vivo may contribute to the neurological dysfunction found in patients affected by NKH.     

APOE4 Affects Basal and NMDAR-Mediated Protein Synthesis in Neurons by Perturbing Calcium Homeostasis

Apolipoprotein E (APOE), one of the primary lipoproteins in the brain has three isoforms in humans, APOE2, APOE3, and APOE4. APOE4 is the most well-established risk factor increasing the predisposition for Alzheimer''s disease (AD). The presence of the APOE4 allele alone is shown to cause synaptic defects in neurons and recent studies have identified multiple pathways directly influenced by APOE4. However, the mechanisms underlying APOE4-induced synaptic dysfunction remain elusive. Here, we report that the acute exposure of primary cortical neurons or synaptoneurosomes to APOE4 leads to a significant decrease in global protein synthesis. Primary cortical neurons were derived from male and female embryos of Sprague Dawley (SD) rats or C57BL/6J mice. Synaptoneurosomes were prepared from P30 male SD rats. APOE4 treatment also abrogates the NMDA-mediated translation response indicating an alteration of synaptic signaling. Importantly, we demonstrate that both APOE3 and APOE4 generate a distinct translation response which is closely linked to their respective calcium signature. Acute exposure of neurons to APOE3 causes a short burst of calcium through NMDA receptors (NMDARs) leading to an initial decrease in protein synthesis which quickly recovers. Contrarily, APOE4 leads to a sustained increase in calcium levels by activating both NMDARs and L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (L-VGCCs), thereby causing sustained translation inhibition through eukaryotic translation elongation factor 2 (eEF2) phosphorylation, which in turn disrupts the NMDAR response. Thus, we show that APOE4 affects basal and activity-mediated protein synthesis responses in neurons by affecting calcium homeostasis.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Defective protein synthesis has been shown as an early defect in familial Alzheimer''s disease (AD). However, this has not been studied in the context of sporadic AD, which constitutes the majority of cases. In our study, we show that Apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), the predominant risk factor for AD, inhibits global protein synthesis in neurons. APOE4 also affects NMDA activity-mediated protein synthesis response, thus inhibiting synaptic translation. We also show that the defective protein synthesis mediated by APOE4 is closely linked to the perturbation of calcium homeostasis caused by APOE4 in neurons. Thus, we propose the dysregulation of protein synthesis as one of the possible molecular mechanisms to explain APOE4-mediated synaptic and cognitive defects. Hence, the study not only suggests an explanation for the APOE4-mediated predisposition to AD, it also bridges the gap in understanding APOE4-mediated pathology.     

Intracellular Calcium and Control of Burst Generation in Neurons of Guinea-Pig Neocortex in Vitro

Response properties of neurons in brain slices of guinea pig parietal neocortex were examined following intracellular injection of the Ca2+ chelators, EGTA and BAPTA. Although chelator injection did not cause any consistent change in passive membrane properties, it did induce 81% of neurons encountered at all sub-pial depths to become 'bursters', in that just-threshold depolarizing current pulses triggered all-or-none bursts of 2 - 5 fast action potentials. Transition to 'burstiness' was associated with disappearance of an AHP and appearance of a DAP. Although chelator caused a slight increase in steady-state firing rate, marked accommodation persisted. Extracellular Co2+ or Mn2+ had an effect on steady-state firing rate similar to that of the intracellular chelators; however, exposure to these Ca2+ channel blockers also caused steady state depolarization, increased resting input resistance and time constant, and profound spike broadening. This treatment never induced transition to 'burstiness'. Chelator-injected neurons ceased to generate bursts when Ca2+ was replaced by Mn2+ in the Ringer's solution. During exposure to 10-6 M TTX and 20 mM TEA, 50 - 200 msec Ca2+ spikes followed brief depolarizing pulses. As chelator was injected into the cell, there was progressive prolongation of the Ca2+ plateaus, which was associated with slowing of the rate at which membrane resistance gradually recovered following the initial increase in conductance. These findings indicate that under normal conditions, activity-related increases in intracellular Ca2+ activate processes which prevent most neocortical neurons from being bursters. These processes probably include Ca2+-dependent K+ currents, and Ca2+-dependent Ca2+ channel inactivation.     

阿魏酸钠对培养的皮质神经细胞内游离Ca2+的影响

目的 :研究阿魏酸钠对谷氨酸诱导培养的皮质神经细胞损伤的作用。方法 :采用新生大鼠皮质神经细胞原代培养建立谷氨酸神经细胞损伤模型 ,用Ca2 +指示剂Fura 2 /AM检测神经细胞内游离钙浓度 ( [Ca2 +] i)的变化 ,并观察反映神经细胞受损程度的培养液中乳酸脱氢酶 (LDH)的释放量的变化。结果 :阿魏酸钠 40～ 10 0 μmol·L-1能剂量依赖性抑制谷氨酸钠所引起的 [Ca2 +] i 升高及LDH释放。结论 :阿魏酸钠通过抑制谷氨酸钠所引起的 [Ca2 +] i 升高可能是其抗氧化性神经损伤作用的重要机制     

Workflow and Methods of High-Content Time-Lapse Analysis for Quantifying Intracellular Calcium Signals

Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) play a fundamental role in a variety of physiological functions in many cell types by acting as a secondary messenger. Variation of intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) is often observed when the cell is stimulated. However, it is a challenging task to automatically quantify intracellular [Ca²⁺]_i in a population of cells. In this study, we present a workflow including specific algorithms for the automated intracellular calcium signal analysis using high-content, time-lapse cellular images. The experimental validations indicate the effectiveness of the proposed workflow and algorithms. We applied the workflow to analyze the intracellular calcium signals induced by different concentrations of H₂O₂ in the cell lines transfected by presenilin-1 (PS-1) that is known to be closely related to the familial Alzheimer’s disease (FAD). The analysis results imply an important role of mutant PS-1, but not normal human PS-1 and mutant human amyloid precursor protein (APP), in enhancing intracellular calcium signaling induced by H₂O₂. F. Li, X. Zhou and J. Zhu contributed equally to this work.     

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Immunoglobulins Increase Intracellular Calcium in a Motoneuron Cell Line

A hybrid motoneuron cell line (VSC4.1) was used as a model system to study the relationship between alterations in intracellular calcium and subsequent cell death induced by immunoglobulin fractions purified from sera of patients with ALS. Using fluo-3 fluorescence imaging, immunoglobulins from 8 of 10 patients with ALS were found to induce transient increases in intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) in differentiated VSC4.1 cells. These transient [Ca²⁺]_iincreases required extracellular calcium entry through voltage-gated calcium channels sensitive to synthetic FTX and to high concentrations (>1 μM) of ω-agatoxin IVa. The incidence of transient [Ca²⁺]_iincreases induced by ALS immunoglobulins correlated with the extent of cytotoxicity induced by the same ALS immunoglobulins in parallel cultures of VSC4.1 cells. Furthermore, manipulations which blocked transient [Ca²⁺]_iincreases (addition of synthetic FTX or ω-agatoxin IVa) also inhibited the cytotoxic effects of ALS immunoglobulins. No transient calcium increases were observed in VSC4.1 cells following addition of immunoglobulins from 7 neurologic disease control patients. However, transient [Ca²⁺]_iincreases were observed following addition of immunoglobulins from 4 of 5 patients with myasthenia gravis (MG). The [Ca²⁺]_ichanges induced by MG immunoglobulins were not blocked by s-FTX, suggesting that they result from a different mechanism than those induced by ALS immunoglobulins. These results suggest that immunoglobulins from patients with ALS can induce transient increases in intracellular calcium in a motoneuron cell line, which may represent early events in the cascade of processes leading to injury and death of susceptible cells.     

蛛网膜下腔出血后线粒体钙超载形成机制的研究进展

线粒体钙超载(mitochondrial calcium overloaded)情况下,Ca~(2+)在细胞线粒体中浓度异常增高,可引起一系列生物系统紊乱,进而导致细胞的不可逆性损伤。这一过程广泛存在于蛛网膜下腔出血(subarachnoid hemorrhage,SAH)后导致的早期脑损害(early brain injury,EBI)中。虽然我们对线粒体的分子结构有所了解,但对于线粒体钙超载发生过程中的分子机制仍知之甚少。本文主要就线粒体钙超载形成过程中各线粒体膜受体发挥的不同作用机制的研究进展情况做一综述,以期为针对SAH后的EBI保护提供参考。     

Calcium Influx,But Not Intracellular Calcium Release,Supports PACAP-Mediated ERK Activation in HEK PAC1 Receptor Cells

In HEK cells expressing GFP-tagged PAC1Hop1 receptors, PACAP augments ERK phosphorylation through two parallel pathways: one through PACAP/PAC1 receptor internalization/endosome MEK/ERK signaling and the other through PLC/DAG/PKC activation. We examined whether elevation of intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) was required for either of the PACAP/PAC1 receptor-mediated ERK activation mechanisms. The PACAP (25 nM)-induced elevation of [Ca²⁺]_i was greater with cells maintained in Ca²⁺-containing than in Ca²⁺-deficient solution, suggesting that both calcium release from internal stores and calcium influx contributed to the rise in [Ca²⁺]_i. A thapsigargin-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i also was greater with calcium in the external solution. OAG, the cell permeable analogue of DAG, increased [Ca²⁺]_i, but only in Ca²⁺-containing solution. Decreasing external calcium or depleting internal calcium stores did not block PACAP-induced PAC1 receptor internalization. Omission of calcium from the external solution, but not thapsigargin pretreatment, significantly blunted PACAP-stimulated ERK phosphorylation. The PKC inhibitor BimI decreased PACAP-mediated ERK activation in both Ca²⁺-containing or Ca²⁺-deficient solutions. In contrast, following Pitstop 2 pretreatment to block endocytic mechanisms, PACAP activated ERK only when calcium was present in the external solution. We conclude that the endosome signaling pathway is largely calcium-independent whereas calcium influx appears necessary for the PLC/DAG/PKC component of PACAP-induced ERK activation.     

β-淀粉样蛋白对海马神经元钙离子浓度的影响及其机制研究

目的　观察β-淀粉样蛋白 (Aβ1 -40 )对海马神经元内钙离子浓度的影响及尼莫地平的拮抗作用。方法　采用大鼠海马神经元的原代培养技术 ,分别用 MTT法和激光扫描共聚焦显微镜结合 Fluo-3 /AM标记观察神经元存活率和细胞内游离钙离子浓度变化。结果　 Aβ1 -40在较高浓度 (1μmol/L和 1 0μmol/L )下 ,对神经元存活率和 [Ca2 + ]i 的影响与对照组相比 ,差异均有显著性 (P <0 .0 5 ,P <0 .0 1 ) ;5 μmol/L尼莫地平可部分降低Aβ1 -40引起的 [Ca2 + ]i 升高。结论　 Aβ1 -40可引起培养海马神经元存活率下降及胞内钙离子浓度升高 ,尼莫地平有部分拮抗作用。     

GHRP6-Stimulated Hormone Secretion in Somatotrophs: Involvement of Intracellular and Extracellular Calcium Sources

GHRP6 is a synthetic hexapeptide which stimulates growth hormone (GH) secretion from the pituitary in vivo and in vitro . We have previously shown that in identified somatotrophs, GHRP6 induces a biphasic increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]i) consisting of an abrupt increase (first phase) followed by a sustained plateau of elevated [Ca²⁺]i (second phase). The first phase corresponds to mobilization of intracellular Ca²⁺ pools and the second phase to influx of extracellular Ca²⁺ ions through voltage-sensitive Ca²⁺ channels. In these experiments, we investigated the specific role of each of these two phases in the hormone response to GHRP6. We found that inhibition by thapsigargin of the intracellular Ca²⁺ mobilization phase significantly inhibited the hormone response to the peptide during 30  min incubations. Inhibition of the extracellular Ca²⁺ influx phase by nifedipine, a blocker of voltage-sensitive Ca²⁺ channels, resulted in a 53% reduction of the secretory response to 10⁻⁵  M GHRP6. Antagonism of PKC by phloretin, a flavonoid which prevents PKC activation, and PKC depletion induced by a 24  h treatment with 10⁻⁶  M PMA, completely inhibited the response to GHRP6. Somatostatin, which also inhibits the second phase of the Ca²⁺ response, suppressed the secretory response to GHRP6. We conclude that, Ca²⁺ is the main second messenger and both Ca²⁺ mobilization and Ca²⁺ entry play a role in the response to GHRP6. However, experiments with PKC depletion and SRIF suggest that other messengers are implicated in GHRP6 signalling in somatotrophs.